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4x10,89,1","98,78,1,81,1,84,1,91,2","99,78,2","­99,84,1","99m,92,1,141,1,737,1,788,1","9cu,82,2,84,1,86,1,90,4","9m,81,1,86,2,89,1,91,1,103,1,699,1,750,1","a1,78,1,92,2,98,1,126,1,135,1,722,1,731,1,782,1,1,1","a10,78,1","a11,78,1","a2,78,1","a3,78,1","a4,78,1","a5,78,1","a6,78,1","a7,78,1","a8,78,1","a9,78,1","abandoned,87,1","ability,89,1","able,82,1,83,1,84,1,85,1,91,1","ablution,92,1,141,1,737,1,788,1","abstract,79,1,81,1,82,1,83,1,84,1,85,1,86,1,87,1,88,1,89,1,90,1,91,1","abutment,82,1","abutments,88,1,90,1","a­c,84,1","academic,81,1,85,1","acccessroad,92,1","acceleration,81,5,82,4,84,2","acceptable,79,1","acceptance,92,1,99,1,695,1,746,1","accepted,81,2","access,10,1,92,2,108,2,109,1,110,1,111,1,119,1,131,1,135,1,141,1,143,1,707,1,704,2,705,1,706,1,715,1,727,1,731,1,737,1,739,1,755,2,756,1,757,1,758,1,766,1,778,1,782,1,788,1,790,1","accidental,85,1","accommodate,98,1,116,1,126,1,712,1,722,1,763,1,1,1","accommodating,84,1","accompanied,81,1","accord,90,1","according,89,1","accordingly,81,1,82,1","account,78,1,82,1,84,2","accountants,92,1","accounted,83,1,89,2","accounting,92,1","accuracy,79,1,81,1,85,1,86,2","accurate,81,1,82,2,83,3,84,2,85,1,87,1","accurately,82,2,84,2,89,1","acetone,81,2","achieve,78,1,79,2,81,1,82,1,84,1,85,1,88,1,98,1,126,1,722,1,1,1","achieved,79,1,84,3,86,1,88,1,89,2,91,1","achievement,89,1","acknowledge,81,1,83,1,84,1,85,1,86,1,87,1","acknowledged,82,1,84,1","acknowledgement,87,1,89,1","acknowledgements,81,1,85,1,86,1","acknowledgment,83,1","acknowledgments,84,1","acquired,88,1","acres,134,1,92,1,98,1,125,1,126,1,721,1,722,1,730,1,772,1,781,1,1,1","across,9,1,89,1,92,4,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,3,117,1,119,1,129,1,148,1,149,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,3,713,1,715,1,725,1,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,3,764,1,766,1,776,1,795,1,796,1","act,82,2,86,1,90,1","acting,81,1,82,4,83,3,87,1","action,81,1,98,1,116,1,126,1,712,1,722,1,763,1,1,1","active,81,4,82,2,83,4,85,1,86,7,87,5,89,5","activities,92,3,99,1,695,1,746,1","activity,89,1","acts,82,1,84,1,86,1,90,1","actual,82,12,83,1,84,1,86,1,89,10","actually,81,1,82,1","adapted,79,1","added,81,1","addition,79,1,81,3,82,1,83,1,84,1,85,1,91,1,119,1,715,1,766,1","additional,79,1,81,3,82,1,83,1,84,1,85,3,88,1,90,2,92,2,98,1,104,1,118,1,126,1,141,1,700,1,714,1,722,1,737,1,751,1,765,1,788,1,1,1","address,81,2,92,1,95,1,99,1,144,1,695,1,740,1,746,1,3,1","addressing,84,1","adhere,91,1","adhered,89,1,91,1","adjacent,81,6,82,1,83,2,84,3,85,7,86,5,87,3,90,2,119,1,715,1,766,1","adjustment,79,1","administration,78,1,92,1,98,1,125,1,126,1,138,1,721,1,722,1,734,1,772,1,785,1,1,1","administrative,7,1,127,1,134,1,92,3,98,2,120,1,121,1,122,1,123,1,125,1,126,2,130,1,136,1,133,2,141,1,137,1,138,1,139,1,147,1,719,1,716,1,717,1,718,1,721,1,722,2,723,1,729,2,730,1,732,1,726,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,737,1,743,1,767,1,768,1,769,1,770,1,772,1,774,1,777,1,780,2,781,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,788,1,794,1,1,2","adopted,79,3,81,2,82,11,83,4,84,3,86,1,89,5,90,1,91,1","adopting,82,2,83,1,86,1,89,1","adruce,119,1,715,1,766,1","advanced,89,1","advances,91,1","advancing,94,1,145,1,741,1,5,1","advantage,81,2,89,4","advantages,81,1,89,1","afectados,88,1","affect,81,1,86,1","affected,81,1,84,1,92,1,100,1,696,1,747,1","against,78,1,79,4,81,2,82,3,83,3,84,1,89,1,91,5,98,1,115,1,126,1,711,1,722,1,762,1,1,1","agencies,92,1,122,1,718,1,769,1","ago,79,1","agreement,82,5,83,5,84,4,89,4,90,3,91,1","agreements,86,1","agrees,78,1","agricultural,8,1,92,1,99,1,100,1,115,1,119,1,124,2,140,1,711,1,720,2,695,1,696,1,715,1,747,1,736,1,746,1,762,1,766,1,771,2,787,1","ahead,81,1,83,2,85,1,90,1","ahmad,119,1,715,1,766,1","aim,91,1","aims,83,1","air,86,1","aired,84,1,88,1","airfield,13,2,92,2,116,2,712,2,763,2","airing,84,1,86,1,88,2","airport,9,1,92,1,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,1,117,1,129,1,148,1,149,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,1,713,1,725,1,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,1,764,1,776,1,795,1,796,1","airports,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,92,1,93,1,142,1,738,1,4,1","ait,81,1,86,1","akin,89,1","alexwong,91,1","alignment,92,3,98,1,126,1,131,1,722,1,727,1,778,1,1,1","allawh,83,1","alleviated,98,1,115,1,126,1,711,1,722,1,762,1,1,1","allow,84,1,89,1,91,1,92,1,113,1,709,1,760,1","allowed,84,1,91,2","allows,89,1","alluvial,78,1","alluvium,91,1","almost,81,2,83,1,89,1","along,81,7,82,2,83,2,84,6,85,2,86,5,87,3,88,1,89,1,90,3,91,2,98,1,115,1,126,1,711,1,722,1,762,1,1,1","alp,82,1,92,1","alter,85,1,88,1","alternative,81,2,85,1,86,1","alternatively,84,1","although,78,1,81,1,83,1","altogether,124,1,720,1,771,1","aluminium,85,1,86,2,87,1,88,2,90,1","aluminum,81,1,82,1,84,3,85,1,86,1,87,1,88,1,90,1","aman,8,3,10,2,92,6,99,3,100,3,108,2,109,3,110,2,111,3,115,3,119,3,124,5,131,2,135,2,140,2,143,2,711,3,720,5,695,3,696,3,707,3,704,2,705,3,706,2,715,3,727,2,731,2,747,3,736,2,739,2,746,3,755,2,756,3,757,2,758,3,762,3,766,3,771,5,778,2,782,2,787,2,790,2","amanah,92,1,141,1,737,1,788,1","amenities,92,1,130,1,726,1,777,1","american,81,1,82,3,85,1,86,1,87,1,90,1","amongst,89,1","amount,78,2,81,3,82,1,84,1,86,1","amp,7,6,8,7,9,5,10,8,11,6,12,7,13,6,127,1,128,1,134,1,93,6,94,3,98,6,99,4,100,4,108,4,109,3,110,4,111,3,112,1,113,2,114,2,115,2,116,1,118,1,119,2,120,1,121,1,122,1,123,2,124,4,125,1,126,6,129,1,130,2,131,3,135,3,136,1,133,1,140,4,141,1,142,6,137,1,138,2,139,1,143,3,145,3,147,3,709,2,710,2,711,2,719,2,720,4,695,4,696,4,707,3,708,1,704,4,705,3,706,4,712,1,714,1,715,2,716,1,717,1,718,1,721,1,725,1,722,6,723,1,724,1,727,3,729,1,730,1,731,3,732,1,726,2,747,4,759,1,733,1,734,2,735,1,736,4,737,1,738,6,739,3,741,3,743,3,746,4,755,4,756,3,757,4,758,3,760,2,761,2,762,2,763,1,765,1,766,2,767,1,768,1,769,1,770,2,771,4,772,1,774,1,775,1,776,1,777,2,778,3,780,1,781,1,782,3,783,1,784,1,785,2,786,1,787,4,788,1,790,3,794,3,4,6,1,6,5,3","analogous,82,2,86,1,88,1","analyse,82,7","analysed,79,2,81,2,82,20,85,2,89,4","analyses,79,12,82,12,83,7,84,2,89,26,91,15,92,1,100,1,696,1,747,1","analysis,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,78,1,79,3,81,1,82,38,83,10,84,12,86,5,88,1,89,49,90,11,91,3,92,25,93,1,113,2,142,1,709,2,738,1,760,2,4,1","analytical,91,1","analyze,83,1,84,5,86,2,90,3","analyzed,79,1,82,3,83,7,89,2","analyzer,90,1","analyzing,85,1,88,1,90,1,92,1","angkasa,129,1,725,1,776,1","angle,78,1,83,1,84,1,86,1,88,1,89,1,91,5","angular,81,1,82,1","annex,98,1,125,1,126,1,721,1,722,1,772,1,1,1","annual,81,1,98,1,115,1,126,1,711,1,722,1,762,1,1,1","annulus,79,1","another,81,1,84,1,85,1,89,1,92,1,140,1,736,1,787,1","anr1250,88,1","anticipated,81,1,85,1,91,1","ap,82,4","apartment,92,2,130,2,726,2,777,2","apartments,92,1,122,1,718,1,769,1","appearance,92,1,137,1,733,1,784,1","appeared,81,1","appears,86,1,87,1,90,1","apple,89,4","applicable,82,2,83,4,90,2","application,82,1,89,1,90,1,91,1","applications,82,1","applied,81,2,82,1,83,1,84,3,86,1,88,1,89,3","applies,84,1","apply,81,1,82,1,90,1","applying,84,1,89,1,90,1","appointed,109,1,705,1,756,1","appreciated,81,2,86,1","approach,84,1,86,1,89,1,90,1,91,3","approaches,82,1,83,1,84,1","approaching,91,2","appropriate,81,5,82,2,83,4,84,1,86,1,89,1,91,1,92,2,99,1,113,1,709,1,695,1,746,1,760,1","appropriately,85,1","approvals,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,92,1,93,1,142,1,738,1,4,1","approved,83,1,84,1","approximate,81,3,82,1,84,2,85,1,88,1,91,2","approximated,82,1,91,1","approximately,81,7,82,3,84,2,85,2,86,5,87,1,88,1,89,1,90,2,91,1,92,2,98,1,103,1,109,1,112,1,126,1,129,1,133,1,140,1,708,1,699,1,705,1,725,1,722,1,729,1,759,1,736,1,750,1,756,1,776,1,780,1,787,1,1,1","approximates,89,1","april,82,1,83,1,84,1,89,1","architectural,92,1,139,1,735,1,786,1","arcilla,88,1","arcillas,88,1","area,82,4,84,5,91,1,92,2,110,2,124,1,133,1,139,1,720,1,706,2,729,1,735,1,757,2,771,1,780,1,786,1","areas,9,1,81,1,82,2,89,1,91,1,92,2,100,1,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,1,117,1,129,1,148,1,149,1,696,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,1,713,1,725,1,747,1,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,1,764,1,776,1,795,1,796,1","argile,90,1","arising,79,1,83,1,89,1","arm,84,1","around,78,7,81,5,82,3,83,4,84,7,86,5,87,2,88,2,90,1,91,1,94,1,98,1,124,2,125,1,126,1,145,1,720,2,721,1,722,1,741,1,771,2,772,1,1,1,5,1","array,81,1,86,1","art,92,1,139,1,735,1,786,1","artefacts,92,1","article,80,4","artifacts,127,1,723,1,774,1","artificial,89,1","asce,78,5,81,4,82,3,83,19,84,19,90,1","ascertain,92,1,113,1,709,1,760,1","asentamientos,88,1","asia,81,2,82,1","asian,81,1,82,1","aspects,92,1,99,1,695,1,746,1","assar,92,2,93,1,118,1,120,3,142,1,714,1,716,3,738,1,765,1,767,3,4,1","assess,79,2,86,1","assessed,79,1,91,1","assessing,79,1","assessment,81,1,89,1","assez,90,1","assigned,79,1,89,1","assigning,89,1","assignments,92,1","assist,91,1,112,1,708,1,759,1","assistance,81,1,83,1,84,1,85,1,86,1,87,1","associate,83,1,84,1,87,1,128,1,92,1,724,1,775,1","associated,81,1,104,1,124,1,720,1,700,1,751,1,771,1","associates,92,1","association,7,1,127,1,128,1,134,1,92,7,99,2,100,1,101,1,121,1,122,1,123,1,125,1,129,1,130,1,136,1,133,1,139,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,147,1,719,1,695,2,696,1,697,1,717,1,718,1,721,1,725,1,723,1,724,1,729,1,730,1,732,1,726,1,747,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,737,1,743,1,746,2,748,1,768,1,769,1,770,1,772,1,774,1,775,1,776,1,777,1,780,1,781,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,788,1,794,1","assume,82,2","assumed,79,1,82,2,84,3,86,1,89,9,90,2","assumes,89,1","assuming,82,1","assumption,79,1,89,1,91,1","ately,91,1","atop,92,1,141,1,737,1,788,1","atrium,92,1,133,1,729,1,780,1","attached,79,1,86,2","attachment,79,1","attain,89,1","attempt,82,7,83,3,89,1","attempted,82,1","attention,81,1","attraction,92,1,136,1,732,1,783,1","attractive,81,3,85,1,86,2,88,1","attractiveness,92,1,99,1,695,1,746,1","attributed,82,2,83,3,84,1,87,2,88,1","au,82,1,90,2","auckland,78,1","auditor,92,1","auger,79,1","august,85,12,94,1,145,1,741,1,5,1","australia,82,1,88,1,91,1","authorities,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,92,1,93,1,142,1,738,1,4,1","authority,7,1,127,1,134,1,92,1,98,1,116,1,121,1,122,1,123,1,125,1,126,1,130,1,136,2,133,1,139,1,141,1,137,1,138,3,147,1,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"cadian,92,1","calculate,82,1,89,2","calculated,78,1,82,3,83,16,84,10,89,3","calculation,82,1","calculations,82,2,83,1,89,2","calibrate,89,1","calibrated,82,1,84,1","called,91,2","calls,104,1,700,1,751,1","cambridge,84,2","camera,85,1,81,1,83,1,84,3,86,2,88,1,90,1","canada,91,1","canadian,81,1","cancelled,81,1,86,1,88,1","candidate,87,1","cannot,81,2,82,2,84,2,88,1,89,2","cantilever,81,1,92,1,108,1,704,1,755,1","caolinítica,88,1","cap,82,1,83,1","capabilities,89,1,92,1,98,1,126,1,722,1,1,1","capability,79,1,86,1,89,2,92,1,98,1,118,1,126,1,714,1,722,1,765,1,1,1","capable,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,82,1,86,1,92,3,93,1,98,4,116,1,118,1,120,1,125,1,126,4,142,1,712,1,714,1,716,1,721,1,722,4,738,1,763,1,765,1,767,1,772,1,4,1,1,4","capacities,81,1,86,2,92,1,98,1,120,1,126,1,716,1,722,1,767,1,1,1","capacity,85,2,81,6,82,3,83,1,86,2,87,1,91,1,92,2,98,3,103,1,104,1,118,1,126,3,129,2,141,1,699,1,700,1,714,1,725,2,722,3,737,1,750,1,751,1,765,1,776,2,788,1,1,3","capped,85,1,82,3","capture,85,1,89,1,90,1,91,1","captured,84,1,88,1","car,7,1,127,1,134,1,92,3,121,1,122,1,123,1,125,1,130,1,136,1,133,1,139,3,141,1,137,1,138,1,147,1,719,1,717,1,718,1,721,1,723,1,729,1,730,1,732,1,726,1,733,1,734,1,735,3,737,1,743,1,768,1,769,1,770,1,772,1,774,1,777,1,780,1,781,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,3,788,1,794,1","care,7,1,81,1,127,1,134,1,91,1,92,2,121,1,122,1,123,1,125,1,130,1,136,1,133,1,139,2,141,1,137,1,138,1,147,1,719,1,717,1,718,1,721,1,723,1,729,1,730,1,732,1,726,1,733,1,734,1,735,2,737,1,743,1,768,1,769,1,770,1,772,1,774,1,777,1,780,1,781,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,2,788,1,794,1","career,17,8,97,4,132,4,728,4,2,4","carefully,84,1","cargo,92,1,138,1,734,1,785,1","carriageway,92,1,98,1,111,1,126,1,135,1,707,1,722,1,731,1,758,1,782,1,1,1","carried,85,5,78,3,79,10,81,3,82,9,83,2,84,4,86,3,87,1,88,3,89,6,90,1,91,3,92,2,99,1,106,1,113,1,709,1,695,1,702,1,746,1,753,1,760,1","carry,85,1,109,1,705,1,756,1","carrying,85,1","carter,91,1","carthis,92,1","case,85,2,79,1,81,1,82,23,83,6,84,2,88,1,89,28,90,4","cases,79,2,81,2,82,5,83,6,84,2,86,1,88,1,89,7,90,1","casing,89,1","cast,85,1,79,1,81,1,84,1,89,3,103,1,699,1,750,1","castelli,83,1","catchment,9,1,92,1,98,1,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,2,115,1,117,1,126,1,129,1,148,1,149,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,2,711,1,713,1,725,1,722,1,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,2,762,1,764,1,776,1,795,1,796,1,1,1","cater,89,1,91,1,92,1,104,2,130,1,700,2,726,1,751,2,777,1","catered,82,1","caters,92,1,122,1,718,1,769,1","cause,85,2,78,1,81,4,82,1,83,1,86,2,87,1,91,3,98,1,126,1,722,1,1,1","caused,85,2,79,1,81,2,83,1,84,2,86,4,88,4,90,1,91,3,98,1,115,1,126,1,711,1,722,1,762,1,1,1","causes,85,1,81,1,82,1,83,2,86,2,87,1,91,1","causing,78,1,86,2,88,1,110,1,706,1,757,1","cava,81,1","caverns,81,1","cavity,79,2","cbd,110,1,706,1,757,1","cc,85,1,86,1,88,1","ccd,88,1","cctv,81,1","ce,83,1,84,1","cease,81,3","celeron,92,1","cell,81,1,82,1","cement,79,47,94,1,145,1,741,1,5,1","cementbentonite,79,2","cementcolu,79,4","cemerlang,92,1,137,1,733,1,784,1","center,7,1,81,4,82,2,86,3,127,1,134,1,121,1,122,1,123,1,125,1,130,1,136,1,133,1,139,2,141,1,137,1,138,1,147,1,719,1,717,1,718,1,721,1,723,1,729,1,730,1,732,1,726,1,733,1,734,1,735,2,737,1,743,1,768,1,769,1,770,1,772,1,774,1,777,1,780,1,781,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,2,788,1,794,1","centerline,86,2,91,1","central,81,1,92,1,110,1,112,1,141,1,706,1,708,1,759,1,737,1,757,1,788,1","centre,85,1,81,9,82,9,83,2,84,2,86,3,87,1,88,1,89,4,90,1,91,1,92,4,95,1,136,1,144,1,732,1,740,1,783,1,3,1","centrífuga,88,1","centrifugal,84,1","centrifuge,85,17,80,4,81,51,82,56,83,14,84,32,86,23,87,14,88,9,90,11,94,2,145,2,741,2,5,2","centrifuged,81,1","centrifuges,81,4","centrifugeuse,90,1","certain,81,1,82,1,86,1,87,1","certificates,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,92,1,93,1,142,1,738,1,4,1","cess,92,1","cf,82,8,87,1","cgc,79,4","chan,81,1,86,1","chandrasekaran,81,3,89,1","change,85,1,78,1,79,1,81,1,82,1,83,1,84,3,89,1","changed,90,1","changes,84,2,86,2,87,1,88,1","changing,84,1,89,1","channel,91,10,92,1,98,1,126,1,129,1,725,1,722,1,776,1,1,1","channels,78,1","chapter,81,1","character,98,1,126,1,722,1,1,1","characterisation,82,1","characteristic,83,1,84,1","characteristics,86,1,88,1","characterization,84,2","charge,84,1","check,79,1,81,1","checked,79,1,89,1","checking,81,1","checks,81,1","chemical,78,1,92,1,98,1,117,1,126,1,713,1,722,1,764,1,1,1","chemicals,92,1,120,1,716,1,767,1","chen,81,3,84,3","cheng,84,1","chiew,78,2","chin,8,1,99,1,100,1,115,1,119,3,124,1,140,1,695,1,696,1,711,1,715,3,720,1,747,1,736,1,746,1,762,1,766,3,771,1,787,1","china,81,1","chiyoda,92,1,120,1,716,1,767,1","chloride,85,2,81,2,82,2,83,1,84,1,87,2,88,2,90,1","choice,79,3","chosen,78,1","chow,85,16,81,11,82,17,83,4,84,6,86,7,87,7,88,3,90,6,94,7,145,7,741,7,5,7","chow2,82,1","chow3,83,1,84,1,87,1","chs,91,1","chun,87,1","church,7,1,127,1,134,1,92,1,121,1,122,1,123,1,125,1,130,1,136,1,133,1,139,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,147,1,719,1,717,1,718,1,721,1,723,1,729,1,730,1,732,1,726,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,737,1,743,1,768,1,769,1,770,1,772,1,774,1,777,1,780,1,781,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,788,1,794,1","circular,78,5,83,1,84,1,86,1,88,1,94,1,145,1,741,1,5,1","circulation,110,1,112,1,706,1,708,1,759,1,757,1","circumference,79,1","circumferential,79,1","ciria,89,1","cities,84,2","city,81,2,91,1,92,1,104,1,110,1,133,1,706,1,700,1,729,1,751,1,757,1,780,1","cividini,91,2","civil,7,5,8,5,9,5,10,5,85,1,11,5,12,5,13,5,78,5,81,4,82,2,83,3,84,3,86,2,127,4,134,4,87,3,88,1,91,1,92,7,93,5,94,5,97,4,98,8,99,4,100,4,101,4,102,4,103,4,104,5,105,4,106,4,107,4,108,4,109,4,110,4,111,4,112,4,113,4,114,4,115,4,116,4,117,4,118,4,119,4,120,5,121,4,122,4,123,4,124,4,125,5,126,8,128,4,129,4,130,4,131,5,135,4,136,4,132,4,133,5,139,5,140,4,141,4,142,5,137,4,138,4,143,4,145,5,147,4,148,4,149,4,709,4,710,4,719,4,695,4,706,4,707,4,708,4,696,4,697,4,698,4,699,4,700,5,701,4,702,4,703,4,704,4,705,4,711,4,712,4,713,4,714,4,715,4,716,5,717,4,718,4,720,4,721,5,725,4,722,8,723,4,724,4,727,5,728,4,729,5,730,4,731,4,732,4,726,4,747,4,758,4,759,4,733,4,734,4,735,5,736,4,737,4,738,5,739,4,741,5,743,4,744,4,745,4,746,4,748,4,749,4,750,4,751,5,752,4,753,4,754,4,755,4,756,4,757,4,760,4,761,4,762,4,763,4,764,4,765,4,766,4,767,5,768,4,769,4,770,4,771,4,772,5,774,4,775,4,776,4,777,4,778,5,780,5,781,4,782,4,783,4,784,4,785,4,786,5,787,4,788,4,790,4,794,4,795,4,796,4,4,5,1,8,2,4,5,5","claims,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,92,1,93,1,142,1,738,1,4,1","clarify,78,1","clarity,85,1,83,1,84,2,88,1,90,1","class,81,1","classical,81,1,86,1","clay,85,21,78,47,79,8,81,42,82,23,83,13,84,50,86,33,87,18,88,29,90,24,94,5,104,1,145,5,700,1,741,5,751,1,5,5","claycore,79,1","clayey,79,2,89,5","clays,83,1,84,1,89,1","clear,78,1,92,1,98,1,117,1,126,1,713,1,722,1,764,1,1,1","clearly,83,3,84,3,86,1,87,1","client,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,92,26,93,1,99,1,100,1,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,106,1,107,1,109,1,110,1,111,1,113,1,114,1,115,1,116,1,117,1,118,1,119,1,120,1,122,1,123,1,124,1,125,1,128,1,129,1,135,1,136,1,133,1,139,1,140,1,141,1,142,1,137,1,138,1,709,1,710,1,719,1,695,1,706,1,707,1,696,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,702,1,703,1,705,1,711,1,712,1,713,1,714,1,715,1,716,1,718,1,720,1,721,1,725,1,724,1,729,1,731,1,732,1,747,1,758,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,736,1,737,1,738,1,746,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,753,1,754,1,756,1,757,1,760,1,761,1,762,1,763,1,764,1,765,1,766,1,767,1,769,1,770,1,771,1,772,1,775,1,776,1,780,1,782,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,787,1,788,1,4,1","clients,92,1,98,1,126,1,722,1,1,1","climate,78,1","close,81,3,82,2,83,4,84,4,86,1","closely,83,1","closer,84,3,89,1","closest,82,1,84,1","closing,83,1,84,1","cluster,92,1,130,1,726,1,777,1","clusters,92,1,130,1,726,1,777,1","clutches,89,1","cmc,79,1","co,89,1,92,1","coarse,78,1","coastal,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,3,11,1,12,1,13,1,92,5,93,1,98,2,108,2,109,2,110,2,111,2,126,2,131,2,135,4,142,1,143,2,706,2,707,2,704,2,705,2,722,2,727,2,731,4,758,2,738,1,739,2,755,2,756,2,757,2,778,2,782,4,790,2,4,1,1,2","coating,85,1,86,1,90,1","code,82,1","coefficient,82,2,83,3,84,5,86,1,88,1","coefficients,89,1","cohesion,79,1,82,2,91,1","cohesive,78,35,82,1,83,2,84,3,86,2,88,2,94,1,145,1,741,1,5,1","coincided,91,1","coincides,98,1,115,1,126,1,711,1,722,1,762,1,1,1","coinciding,90,1","coined,82,1","collapse,85,2,81,3,82,3,83,14,84,3,86,7,87,5,88,3,90,1","collapsed,81,2,82,7,83,16,84,4,86,2,87,1,88,6,90,2,94,1,145,1,741,1,5,1","collapses,81,1,86,4,90,1","collecting,92,1","collector,92,1","colorado,78,1","colu,79,4","column,85,1,79,17,92,3,133,2,137,1,729,2,733,1,780,2,784,1","columns,79,34,94,1,145,1,741,1,5,1","com,82,2,83,1,84,1,91,2,92,1,95,1,97,1,132,1,144,1,728,1,740,1,1,4,2,1,3,1","combination,79,1","combined,92,1,98,1,110,1,117,1,126,1,706,1,713,1,722,1,757,1,764,1,1,1","combining,78,1","coming,98,1,115,1,126,1,711,1,722,1,762,1,1,1","commanding,92,1,122,1,718,1,769,1","commencement,79,1","commences,83,1","commercial,7,1,85,1,12,1,82,1,83,1,84,1,127,1,134,1,87,1,89,1,92,6,95,1,114,1,121,1,122,2,123,1,125,1,130,1,136,1,133,3,139,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,144,1,147,1,710,1,719,1,717,1,718,2,721,1,723,1,729,3,730,1,732,1,726,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,737,1,740,1,743,1,761,1,768,1,769,2,770,1,772,1,774,1,777,1,780,3,781,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,788,1,794,1,3,1","commercially,82,1,91,1","commerical,82,1","commissioned,81,1,82,1,101,1,697,1,748,1","common,81,1,82,2,87,1,89,1,119,1,715,1,766,1","commonly,82,2,83,1","community,7,1,127,1,134,1,92,3,98,1,121,1,122,1,123,1,125,1,126,1,130,1,136,1,133,1,139,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,147,1,719,1,717,1,718,1,721,1,722,1,723,1,729,1,730,1,732,1,726,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,737,1,743,1,768,1,769,1,770,1,772,1,774,1,777,1,780,1,781,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,788,1,794,1,1,1","compacted,78,1,79,2,91,1","companion,83,3,84,3","company,92,8,94,1,145,1,741,1,5,1","comparable,89,1","compare,89,1","compared,78,2,82,3,83,3,86,3,89,2,90,1","comparing,83,4,84,1,87,1","comparision,89,1","comparison,78,4,81,1,82,8,83,5,84,2,89,14,91,3","comparisons,78,1,82,1,89,4,94,1,145,1,741,1,5,1","compartment,124,1,720,1,771,1","compartments,98,1,115,1,124,2,126,1,711,1,720,2,722,1,762,1,771,2,1,1","compatibility,89,1,91,1","compatible,92,1","compendium,78,1","competency,98,1,126,1,722,1,1,1","competitive,89,2","complete,79,1,89,1,98,1,116,1,126,1,712,1,722,1,763,1,1,1","completed,79,5,83,1,84,4,92,12,98,1,107,1,126,1,703,1,722,1,754,1,1,1","completely,81,1,83,2,86,1","completion,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,2,85,3,11,1,12,2,13,1,81,1,83,3,84,17,86,1,87,1,88,4,92,9,93,1,108,1,109,1,110,1,111,1,114,1,131,1,135,1,142,1,143,1,710,1,706,1,707,1,704,1,705,1,727,1,731,1,758,1,738,1,739,1,755,1,756,1,757,1,761,1,778,1,782,1,790,1,4,1","complex,7,3,81,3,83,1,84,1,127,3,134,3,89,1,92,10,121,4,122,3,123,3,125,3,130,3,136,3,133,6,139,3,141,3,137,4,138,3,147,3,719,3,717,4,718,3,721,3,723,3,729,6,730,3,732,3,726,3,733,4,734,3,735,3,737,3,743,3,768,4,769,3,770,3,772,3,774,3,777,3,780,6,781,3,783,3,784,4,785,3,786,3,788,3,794,3","complexes,92,1","complicated,82,1,89,4,92,1,139,1,735,1,786,1","complications,89,2","component,78,1","components,92,1,98,1,120,1,126,1,716,1,722,1,767,1,1,1","comportamiento,88,3","composite,79,2","composition,79,1","comprehensive,92,4,98,1,126,1,722,1,1,1","compression,85,1,81,1,84,1,86,1,88,1,89,3","compressive,79,5","comprise,92,1,133,1,729,1,780,1","comprised,79,5","comprises,98,1,126,1,129,1,725,1,722,1,776,1,1,1","compromised,83,1","computation,82,1,92,1","computed,79,2,89,1,91,7","computer,82,3,83,1,84,3,87,1,88,1,91,2,92,7,100,1,696,1,747,1","computerized,92,1","computers,89,1","concave,91,1","concentration,91,1","concept,82,1,83,1,84,1,86,1,90,1,91,1,92,1,98,1,115,1,126,1,130,1,711,1,722,1,726,1,762,1,777,1,1,1","conception,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,92,1,93,1,142,1,738,1,4,1","conceptual,92,1,113,1,709,1,760,1","concern,79,2,81,1,84,1,89,1","concerns,83,1","concluded,78,1,82,1,83,1,92,1,106,1,107,1,702,1,703,1,753,1,754,1","conclusion,79,1,86,1,91,1","conclusions,85,1,78,1,81,1,82,1,83,1,84,1,87,1,88,2,89,2,90,2","concourse,89,2","concrete,85,1,79,2,81,1,84,1,89,5,98,1,103,1,106,1,126,1,129,1,699,1,702,1,725,1,722,1,750,1,753,1,776,1,1,1","condition,85,1,79,3,81,1,82,3,83,1,84,3,86,1,89,8,90,1,91,2","conditions,78,2,81,1,82,2,83,3,84,2,86,1,87,1,89,11,91,4,92,2,98,1,100,1,126,1,128,1,696,1,722,1,724,1,747,1,775,1,1,1","condominium,7,1,127,1,134,1,92,3,121,1,122,7,123,1,125,1,130,1,136,1,133,1,139,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,147,1,719,1,717,1,718,7,721,1,723,1,729,1,730,1,732,1,726,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,737,1,743,1,768,1,769,7,770,1,772,1,774,1,777,1,780,1,781,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,788,1,794,1","conducted,85,1,78,1,81,2,83,4,84,2,86,3,87,3,88,3,90,1","conducting,85,1,83,1,84,1,87,1","conductivity,91,2","cone,82,1","conf,81,1,82,2,83,1,84,3,86,1,88,1","conference,85,15,78,8,81,14,82,4,86,3,87,4,89,1,90,1,91,1,92,1,94,3,145,3,741,3,5,3","conferences,78,1","confidence,86,1,89,1","configuration,81,2,83,2,84,3,86,1,88,2,89,1,91,1","configurations,83,2,86,1","confined,84,3","confining,84,1","confirms,82,1,83,1,84,1","conflicts,81,2","conform,109,1,705,1,756,1","congested,110,1,706,1,757,1","congestion,110,1,706,1,757,1","connected,88,1","connecting,84,1","connections,86,1,88,1","connects,92,1,136,1,732,1,783,1","conservative,79,1,82,2,89,1","consider,82,1,89,1,98,1,116,1,126,1,712,1,722,1,763,1,1,1","considerable,85,1,81,1,82,1,84,2,86,1,87,1,88,1,91,1","considerably,85,1,81,2,82,2,83,4,84,4,86,1,90,1","consideration,79,1,82,1,89,1,91,2,92,1,105,1,701,1,752,1","considerations,82,2","considered,78,1,82,3,83,1,86,1,89,6,91,2","considering,82,1,84,1,89,6,92,1,99,1,695,1,746,1","consist,78,1,112,1,708,1,759,1","consisted,79,1","consistency,89,3","consistent,85,1,78,1,81,3,83,1,84,3,86,2,88,2,89,4,112,1,708,1,759,1","consistently,91,1","consisting,85,1,81,1,91,1,92,1,98,1,119,1,124,1,126,1,715,1,720,1,722,1,766,1,771,1,1,1","consists,79,1,87,1,89,1,91,1,92,4,98,5,103,1,110,1,111,1,118,1,119,1,125,1,126,5,131,1,135,2,706,1,707,1,699,1,714,1,715,1,721,1,722,5,727,1,731,2,758,1,750,1,757,1,765,1,766,1,772,1,778,1,782,2,1,5","consolidated,85,2,81,1,82,2,84,4,86,1,87,1,88,1,89,1,90,1","consolidation,79,1,81,6,82,2,84,4,86,3,88,3,89,26","constant,79,1,81,1,82,1,83,2,86,1,88,1","constantly,84,1,89,1,92,1","constitutive,89,1","constraint,84,2","construct,89,3,91,1","constructed,85,1,79,3,81,1,84,1,91,7,104,1,700,1,751,1","construction,7,2,8,2,9,2,10,3,85,1,11,2,12,3,13,2,79,25,81,2,82,1,86,1,88,1,89,25,91,28,92,14,93,2,94,1,98,2,100,1,103,1,108,2,109,1,110,1,111,1,114,1,117,1,120,1,126,2,131,1,135,1,140,1,142,2,143,1,145,1,710,1,706,1,707,1,696,1,699,1,704,2,705,1,713,1,716,1,722,2,727,1,731,1,747,1,758,1,736,1,738,2,739,1,741,1,750,1,755,2,756,1,757,1,761,1,764,1,767,1,778,1,782,1,787,1,790,1,4,2,1,2,5,1","consultancy,7,2,8,2,9,2,10,2,11,2,12,2,13,2,92,4,93,2,98,2,109,1,126,2,142,2,705,1,722,2,738,2,756,1,4,2,1,2","consultant,7,4,8,4,9,4,10,4,11,4,12,4,13,4,127,4,134,4,93,4,94,4,97,4,98,4,99,4,100,4,101,5,102,4,103,4,104,4,105,4,106,4,107,4,108,4,109,4,110,4,111,4,112,4,113,4,114,4,115,4,116,4,117,4,118,4,119,4,120,4,121,4,122,4,123,4,124,4,125,4,126,4,128,4,129,5,130,4,131,4,135,4,136,4,132,4,133,4,139,4,140,4,141,4,142,4,137,4,138,4,143,4,145,4,147,4,148,4,149,4,709,4,710,4,719,4,695,4,706,4,707,4,708,4,696,4,697,5,698,4,699,4,700,4,701,4,702,4,703,4,704,4,705,4,711,4,712,4,713,4,714,4,715,4,716,4,717,4,718,4,720,4,721,4,725,5,722,4,723,4,724,4,727,4,728,4,729,4,730,4,731,4,726,4,747,4,758,4,759,4,732,4,733,4,734,4,735,4,736,4,737,4,738,4,739,4,741,4,743,4,744,4,745,4,746,4,748,5,749,4,750,4,751,4,752,4,753,4,754,4,755,4,756,4,757,4,760,4,761,4,762,4,763,4,764,4,765,4,766,4,767,4,768,4,769,4,770,4,771,4,772,4,774,4,775,4,776,5,777,4,778,4,780,4,781,4,782,4,783,4,784,4,785,4,786,4,787,4,788,4,790,4,794,4,795,4,796,4,4,4,1,4,2,4,5,4","consultants,79,1,81,1,83,1,84,1,89,1,92,8,99,2,100,1,110,1,128,1,695,2,706,1,696,1,724,1,747,1,746,2,757,1,775,1","consultation,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,92,1,93,1,142,1,738,1,4,1","consulting,7,4,8,4,9,4,10,4,11,4,12,4,13,4,127,4,134,4,91,1,92,64,93,4,94,4,95,1,97,4,98,4,99,4,100,4,101,4,102,4,103,4,104,4,105,4,106,4,107,4,108,4,109,4,110,4,111,4,112,4,113,4,114,4,115,4,116,4,117,4,118,4,119,4,120,4,121,4,122,4,123,4,124,4,125,4,126,4,128,4,129,4,130,4,131,4,135,4,136,4,132,4,133,4,139,4,140,4,141,4,142,4,137,4,138,4,143,4,144,1,145,4,147,4,148,4,149,4,709,4,710,4,719,4,695,4,706,4,707,4,708,4,696,4,697,4,698,4,699,4,700,4,701,4,702,4,703,4,704,4,705,4,711,4,712,4,713,4,714,4,715,4,716,4,717,4,718,4,720,4,721,4,725,4,722,4,723,4,724,4,727,4,728,4,729,4,730,4,731,4,726,4,747,4,758,4,759,4,732,4,733,4,734,4,735,4,736,4,737,4,738,4,739,4,740,1,741,4,743,4,744,4,745,4,746,4,748,4,749,4,750,4,751,4,752,4,753,4,754,4,755,4,756,4,757,4,760,4,761,4,762,4,763,4,764,4,765,4,766,4,767,4,768,4,769,4,770,4,771,4,772,4,774,4,775,4,776,4,777,4,778,4,780,4,781,4,782,4,783,4,784,4,785,4,786,4,787,4,788,4,790,4,794,4,795,4,796,4,4,4,1,4,2,4,3,1,5,4","consuming,85,1,82,1,89,1","cont,92,2","contact,85,2,81,3,82,3,83,1,86,3,87,4,88,2,89,2,90,1,95,4,97,1,132,1,144,4,728,1,740,4,2,1,3,4","contactus,19,8,95,4,144,4,740,4,3,4","contained,78,1,81,1,82,1,84,1,86,1,88,1","container,85,3,81,2,83,1,84,14,86,5,87,1,88,5,90,1,92,1,138,1,734,1,785,1","containing,82,1,83,1,84,1","contención,88,1","content,78,37,79,2,84,1,86,1,88,1,91,4","contents,78,1","context,98,1,115,1,126,1,711,1,722,1,762,1,1,1","continue,85,1,83,1,84,5,91,1","continued,91,1","continues,85,1,81,2,83,1,84,3,86,1,87,1,88,1,92,1,140,1,736,1,787,1","continuity,89,1","continuous,79,1,82,1,89,1,91,5","continuously,79,1,84,1,86,1,88,1","continuum,84,1","contour,82,1,84,1","contract,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,92,1,93,1,142,1,738,1,4,1","contractor,92,3,93,1,118,1,120,3,142,1,714,1,716,3,738,1,765,1,767,3,4,1","contractual,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,92,1,93,1,142,1,738,1,4,1","contrary,78,1,92,1,137,1,733,1,784,1","contrast,81,1","contribute,79,1","contributed,86,1","contributing,89,1","contribution,79,1,89,1","contributions,81,1,86,1","contributor,98,1,126,1,722,1,1,1","control,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,81,1,92,1,93,1,112,1,124,1,142,1,708,1,720,1,759,1,738,1,771,1,4,1","controlled,8,1,85,1,11,1,78,1,79,6,81,1,84,1,86,1,91,1,92,2,99,1,100,2,112,1,113,1,115,1,119,1,124,3,128,1,140,1,709,1,695,1,708,1,696,2,711,1,715,1,720,3,724,1,747,2,759,1,736,1,746,1,760,1,762,1,766,1,771,3,775,1,787,1","convenient,89,1","conventional,81,3,82,2,83,2,89,1","conventionally,82,2,83,3","conversion,82,2,92,1,98,1,126,1,143,1,722,1,739,1,790,1,1,1","converted,85,1,92,1","converting,82,4","coomplex,92,1","coordinated,112,1,708,1,759,1","coping,92,1,113,1,709,1,760,1","core,79,28,81,2,86,2,92,3,103,1,104,1,141,1,699,1,700,1,737,1,750,1,751,1,788,1","cored,79,1","corner,88,1","corners,92,1,139,1,735,1,786,1","corporate,98,1,126,1,722,1,1,1","corporation,92,1,93,1,118,1,120,1,139,2,142,1,714,1,716,1,735,2,738,1,765,1,767,1,786,2,4,1","correct,82,1,83,1,84,3,88,1,89,3","corrected,86,2,90,2","correction,90,1","corrections,85,1,88,1,90,1","correctly,82,1,84,1,86,1,89,7","correlate,78,1","correlates,78,1","corresponding,85,3,79,2,81,4,82,7,83,2,84,2,89,2,90,1,91,1","corresponds,79,1,84,1","cost,85,2,84,1,92,18,98,1,106,1,113,1,125,1,126,1,709,1,702,1,721,1,722,1,753,1,760,1,772,1,1,1","costing,92,1,98,1,112,1,126,1,131,1,708,1,722,1,727,1,759,1,778,1,1,1","costly,85,1","costs,92,1,99,1,695,1,746,1","could,85,4,79,2,81,3,82,8,83,5,84,5,86,2,88,6,89,1,90,3,91,3","coulomb,82,4,89,6","council,7,1,127,1,134,1,92,1,121,1,122,1,123,1,125,1,130,1,136,1,133,1,139,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,147,1,719,1,717,1,718,1,721,1,723,1,729,1,730,1,726,1,732,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,737,1,743,1,768,1,769,1,770,1,772,1,774,1,777,1,780,1,781,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,788,1,794,1","count,92,1","coupled,79,1,84,1,89,18","coupledconsolidation,89,1","course,85,2,91,1","cover,89,1,124,1,720,1,771,1","covered,78,1,83,1,92,1","covers,92,1,98,2,120,1,125,1,126,2,716,1,721,1,722,2,767,1,772,1,1,2","cpg,81,1,83,1,84,1,89,1","cpgcorp,83,1,84,1","cpt,82,1","crack,79,3,81,1,86,2,87,1,90,1","cracked,79,1","cracking,85,1,79,1,84,1","cracks,85,6,79,1,81,5,82,1,83,12,86,7,87,5,88,7,90,2","create,78,1","created,78,1,79,1,82,1,84,1,88,1","creates,81,2,86,2,88,3,89,1","creative,98,1,126,1,722,1,1,1","creep,82,1","crest,91,3,104,1,700,1,751,1","crisp,82,2,89,74,94,1,145,1,741,1,5,1","criteria,91,1","critical,78,1,79,4,81,1,83,2,91,3","cross,79,1,84,1,89,2,91,1","crossing,91,2","crossroads,110,1,706,1,757,1","crosssection,79,1","crowding,79,2","crown,92,1","crust,85,1,79,1,81,1,82,1,83,1,84,1,86,1,87,1,88,1,90,1","crusted,79,3","cs,85,1,86,1,88,1","csu,78,5","cu,85,1,81,1,82,14,83,3,84,3,86,1,89,2,90,4,92,2","cub,98,2,125,2,126,2,721,2,722,2,772,2,1,2","culprit,91,1","culvert,92,2,119,1,124,1,715,1,720,1,766,1,771,1","culverts,98,1,115,1,126,1,711,1,722,1,762,1,1,1","cum,89,2,92,3","current,84,1,97,1,98,1,125,1,126,1,132,1,721,1,722,1,728,1,772,1,1,1,2,1","currently,79,1,87,1,88,1,92,1,98,1,126,1,722,1,1,1","curve,79,1,81,2","custody,98,1,116,1,126,1,136,1,712,1,722,1,732,1,763,1,783,1,1,1","cut,79,1,89,1,98,1,126,1,129,1,725,1,722,1,776,1,1,1","cutoff,104,1,700,1,751,1","cv,84,1","cvechow,85,1,83,1,84,1,87,1","cvel,87,1","cvelcf,85,1,82,1,83,1,84,1","cvm1,88,1","cylinder,82,3","cylindrical,78,1,79,4,82,1","czech,86,1,87,1","d1,78,1","d2,78,1","d3,78,1","d50,78,1","daf,92,1,98,1,117,1,126,1,713,1,722,1,764,1,1,1","daily,79,1","daly,84,2","dam,7,1,8,1,9,8,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,79,40,81,1,92,15,93,1,94,1,98,7,101,11,102,7,103,7,104,12,105,10,106,10,107,8,117,7,126,7,129,14,142,1,145,1,148,7,149,7,697,11,698,7,699,7,700,12,701,10,702,10,703,8,713,7,725,14,722,7,738,1,741,1,744,7,745,7,748,11,749,7,750,7,751,12,752,10,753,10,754,8,764,7,776,14,795,7,796,7,1,7,4,1,5,1","damage,79,1,83,1","damaged,85,2","damages,81,1","dams,98,1,126,1,129,1,725,1,722,1,776,1,1,1","dan,92,1,101,1,697,1,748,1","dans,90,1","darcy,89,1","dasari,81,1,86,1","dash,82,1","dashed,82,1,83,1","data,85,2,78,4,81,1,82,1,83,2,84,4,88,2,90,3,91,6,92,2","database,83,1,84,1,91,1","date,83,1,84,1,97,1,132,1,728,1,2,1","datum,84,1","davey,92,1,129,1,725,1,776,1","davis,78,2,82,5,83,3,84,3","day,85,2,84,1,86,1,88,1,90,1,98,1,110,1,126,1,129,1,706,1,725,1,722,1,757,1,776,1,1,1","days,85,7,78,1,79,4,81,6,84,14,86,8,87,1,88,21,89,3","dc,78,1","dealing,91,1","december,87,1,92,1,94,1,145,1,741,1,5,1","decided,91,1,104,1,700,1,751,1","decrease,85,2,81,1,82,1,84,5,87,2,88,1","decreased,78,1","decreases,85,1,78,1,84,3,87,1","decreasing,83,1,84,1","dedicate,98,1,126,1,722,1,1,1","dedicated,98,1,126,1,722,1,1,1","dedication,92,1","deduced,85,1,81,1,82,4,83,6,84,3","deemed,85,1,79,1,81,1,86,1,88,1","deep,85,1,78,1,81,2,82,2,83,2,84,1,86,1,88,1,89,9,94,1,145,1,741,1,5,1","deeper,78,1,84,2,88,1","def,81,1","defection,83,1","deficiencies,92,1,113,1,709,1,760,1","deficiency,81,1","define,82,1,89,1","defined,78,2,81,1,82,4,83,1,88,1,89,2","definitely,89,1","definition,78,2","defl,90,1","deflatable,92,1,105,1,701,1,752,1","deflect,81,1","deflected,83,1","deflection,85,24,81,31,82,34,83,29,84,30,86,8,87,7,88,7,89,13,90,11,92,1","deflections,85,3,81,1,82,3,83,8,90,2","deformation,85,1,81,2,82,9,83,3,84,12,86,6,90,1","deformations,81,1,83,1,84,1,86,2,88,7","deformed,81,4,83,1,84,3,86,4,87,2,88,1,89,2","deforming,86,1,88,1","deg,91,1","degradation,92,1,99,1,695,1,746,1","degree,85,1,81,2,83,1,84,1,89,1","degrees,83,1","del,81,8,82,8,88,4,89,8","delay,92,1","delhi,81,1","deliberately,91,1","demand,101,1,104,1,697,1,700,1,748,1,751,1","demands,92,1,113,1,709,1,760,1","demolished,85,2","demonstrate,82,1,86,2,89,3","demonstrated,81,1,82,2,86,3,89,2,90,1","demonstrates,81,1,89,1","denote,81,1","denoted,83,1","denotes,85,1,81,1","dense,83,3,87,1","density,85,1,78,4,79,2,82,1,83,1,84,1,86,1,88,1,90,1","dep,85,1,82,1,90,1","department,85,1,78,3,81,2,86,1,88,1,91,1,92,3,98,2,99,2,100,2,115,2,119,2,123,1,124,3,126,2,140,2,719,1,695,2,696,2,711,2,715,2,720,3,722,2,747,2,736,2,746,2,762,2,766,2,770,1,771,3,787,2,1,2","depend,78,1","dependent,85,4,81,6,83,2,84,8,86,1,87,4,88,5,89,1,90,1,94,1,145,1,741,1,5,1","depending,81,1,82,2","depends,78,1,81,1,83,1","depict,84,1,86,1,88,1","depicting,86,1","depicts,85,1,90,1,92,1,98,1,126,1,722,1,1,1","deployed,82,1","deposit,86,1,88,1","deposited,78,1,91,1","depot,92,1","dept,83,2,84,2","depth,85,38,78,31,79,4,81,53,82,23,83,48,84,28,86,37,87,24,88,21,89,4,90,22,91,1","depths,85,1,83,3,84,1,86,1,87,1,88,4,90,1","derivatives,84,1","derived,85,2,83,4,84,6,89,1,91,1","deriving,82,1,83,1","derrumbado,88,1","des,90,8","desai,89,2,91,2","described,85,2,81,3,82,11,83,1,84,1,86,3,89,5,90,1","describes,91,1","description,87,1,89,5,97,1,132,1,728,1,2,1","design,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,3,85,1,11,1,12,2,13,1,78,1,79,8,81,3,82,8,83,2,84,2,86,2,89,11,90,1,91,12,92,23,93,2,98,5,103,1,108,2,109,3,110,2,111,2,113,1,114,1,115,1,118,1,120,1,122,1,126,5,130,1,131,3,135,2,133,1,139,1,142,2,143,3,709,1,710,1,706,2,707,2,699,1,704,2,705,3,711,1,714,1,716,1,718,1,722,5,727,3,729,1,731,2,726,1,758,2,735,1,738,2,739,3,750,1,755,2,756,3,757,2,760,1,761,1,762,1,765,1,767,1,769,1,777,1,778,3,780,1,782,2,786,1,790,3,1,5,4,2","designed,85,1,79,2,89,1,91,2,92,2,98,1,110,1,111,1,126,1,135,1,141,1,706,1,707,1,722,1,731,1,758,1,737,1,757,1,782,1,788,1,1,1","designing,81,1","designs,81,1,86,1,92,1","desired,79,3,84,1","desirous,79,1,124,1,720,1,771,1","despite,81,1,82,2,83,1,84,4,87,1,89,1,90,1,91,2","después,88,1","detached,92,1","detail,85,5,81,3,82,6,84,2,86,2,87,2,88,1,90,1,91,1","detailed,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,79,1,81,1,82,1,91,3,92,1,93,1,109,1,142,1,705,1,738,1,756,1,4,1","details,85,3,81,4,82,1,89,4,90,1","detalladamente,88,1","detected,83,1","determine,79,3,91,1","determined,79,2,82,1,83,3,84,4,87,1,88,1,89,1,90,1,91,3","detrás,88,2","detrimental,85,2,81,2,87,1","devel,83,1","develop,83,1,84,3,86,2","developé,90,1","developed,85,1,78,9,79,1,81,2,82,4,83,2,84,3,86,5,90,2,101,1,697,1,748,1","developing,92,1,98,1,126,1,128,1,722,1,724,1,775,1,1,1","development,7,6,8,2,9,1,10,1,85,4,11,1,12,1,13,1,78,1,81,6,82,1,83,6,84,7,86,12,127,5,134,6,87,6,88,8,89,1,90,3,91,3,92,8,93,1,98,2,99,1,100,1,101,1,112,1,115,1,116,2,119,1,121,5,122,6,123,6,124,2,125,5,126,2,130,6,136,6,133,5,139,7,140,1,141,5,142,1,137,5,138,5,147,5,719,6,695,1,708,1,696,1,697,1,711,1,712,2,715,1,717,5,718,6,720,2,721,5,722,2,723,5,729,5,730,6,726,6,747,1,759,1,732,6,733,5,734,5,735,7,736,1,737,5,738,1,743,5,746,1,748,1,762,1,763,2,766,1,768,5,769,6,770,6,771,2,772,5,774,5,777,6,780,5,781,6,783,6,784,5,785,5,786,7,787,1,788,5,794,5,1,2,4,1","developments,91,1","develops,87,1,91,1","deviation,79,1","device,84,1","dewan,92,1","dia,9,1,92,1,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,1,117,1,129,1,148,1,149,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,1,713,1,725,1,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,1,764,1,776,1,795,1,796,1","diagram,89,1","diagrams,84,1","diameter,85,1,78,2,79,8,81,5,82,7,83,1,84,2,86,4,87,1,88,1,90,1,119,1,124,1,715,1,720,1,766,1,771,1","diameters,82,3,84,1,103,1,699,1,750,1","diaphragm,85,1,82,1,83,1,84,4,86,1,87,1,88,1","did,7,1,8,14,82,1,84,1,127,1,134,1,92,14,99,14,100,14,115,15,119,15,121,1,122,1,123,1,124,15,125,1,130,1,136,1,133,1,139,1,140,11,141,1,137,1,138,1,147,1,719,1,695,14,696,14,711,15,715,15,717,1,718,1,720,15,721,1,723,1,729,1,730,1,726,1,747,14,732,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,736,11,737,1,743,1,746,14,762,15,766,15,768,1,769,1,770,1,771,15,772,1,774,1,777,1,780,1,781,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,787,11,788,1,794,1","didsamarahan,123,4,719,4,770,4","differ,89,1","difference,85,1,81,3,83,1,86,3,88,2,91,2","differences,83,2,89,7","different,85,1,78,6,79,2,81,4,82,1,83,7,84,7,86,1,87,1,88,4,89,12,91,1","differential,79,3,81,1,86,1,91,1","differentiate,82,1","differentiating,85,1,81,1","differing,89,1","differs,83,1","difficult,81,1,92,1","difficulty,79,1","dimension,82,1,86,1,88,1","dimensional,84,5,89,4","dimensions,85,1,78,1,81,3,82,2,84,4,86,1,87,1,88,1,90,1","din,81,1","direct,82,1","direction,79,3,81,1,82,8,86,1,87,1,89,3,91,1","directly,81,1,82,1,84,1,89,1","director,79,1,91,1","disappears,83,1","discharge,92,1,105,1,701,1,752,1","discrepancies,83,1,91,1","discussed,82,1,83,2,84,2,86,1,88,2,89,1,90,1,91,1","discussion,83,1,84,1,91,1","discussions,83,2,84,1,86,2,88,1,89,1","dispersion,78,1","displaced,79,3,90,1","displacement,85,2,79,9,81,1,82,1,84,4,86,3,87,1,89,1,90,2","displacementgrouting,79,1","displaying,92,1","disposal,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,92,1,93,1,142,1,738,1,4,1","disputes,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,92,1,93,1,142,1,738,1,4,1","dissertation,78,3,82,1","dissipate,84,1","dissipated,79,2,84,1","dissipation,81,2,84,3,86,3,87,1,88,3","dissolve,81,1","dissolved,81,1,86,1","distance,85,2,81,11,82,24,84,14,86,5,87,2,88,3,91,8","distances,81,1,84,1,91,1","distinct,82,1,84,1,88,3,89,1,90,1","distinguishing,89,1","distress,86,1","distribution,78,1,82,2,84,2,86,2,89,8,90,3,91,1","distributions,89,1","district,7,2,127,2,134,2,92,4,110,1,112,1,121,2,122,2,123,2,125,2,130,2,136,2,133,2,139,2,141,2,137,2,138,2,147,3,719,2,706,1,708,1,717,2,718,2,721,2,723,2,729,2,730,2,726,2,759,1,732,2,733,2,734,2,735,2,737,2,743,3,757,1,768,2,769,2,770,2,772,2,774,2,777,2,780,2,781,2,783,2,784,2,785,2,786,2,788,2,794,3","disturbance,79,3","disturbed,82,1,84,1","div,83,1,84,1","divided,78,1,82,1,109,1,705,1,756,1","division,8,2,9,1,10,2,12,1,78,1,81,1,82,1,83,1,84,1,92,8,99,2,100,2,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,1,108,2,109,3,110,2,111,2,114,1,115,2,117,1,119,2,124,3,129,1,131,2,135,2,140,2,143,2,148,1,149,1,710,1,695,2,706,2,707,2,696,2,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,1,704,2,705,3,711,2,713,1,715,2,720,3,725,1,727,2,731,2,747,2,758,2,736,2,739,2,744,1,745,1,746,2,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,1,755,2,756,3,757,2,761,1,762,2,764,1,766,2,771,3,776,1,778,2,782,2,787,2,790,2,795,1,796,1","dlp,92,1","doc,85,4,78,4,81,4,82,4,86,4,88,4,89,4,90,4","documentation,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,92,1,93,1,142,1,738,1,4,1","doi,83,1,84,1","doing,89,1","domigan,91,1","dominant,86,1,88,1","dominic,79,1,81,1,83,9,84,9,87,1,94,13,145,13,741,13,5,13","double,84,1,92,1,141,1,737,1,788,1","down,78,1,79,2,84,2,86,2,87,1,88,2,89,1","download,94,1,145,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6,4","huge,81,1,84,1","hui,79,1,94,1,145,1,741,1,5,1","human,81,1","humankind,98,1,126,1,722,1,1,1","hy6,78,1","hydraulic,78,2,81,1,84,1,86,1,88,2,89,1,91,35,92,2,94,1,100,1,145,1,696,1,747,1,741,1,5,1","hydraulically,91,3","hydraulics,78,3,92,1","hydrogeneration,106,1,702,1,753,1","hydrological,9,1,92,2,100,1,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,2,117,1,129,1,148,1,149,1,696,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,2,713,1,725,1,747,1,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,2,764,1,776,1,795,1,796,1","hydrostatic,84,1,86,1,88,2,89,3","hyperbolic,78,3","iahr,78,2","ibm,92,1","ibraco,92,1","ice,98,1,116,1,126,1,712,1,722,1,763,1,1,1","icsff,85,8","icted,82,1","id,89,3","ideal,82,1","idealised,89,1","idealized,82,2,84,2,86,1,89,6,90,1","ideas,81,1","identical,85,1,81,1,82,1,83,3,84,2,86,1,87,1,88,1,89,4,90,1,103,1,699,1,750,1","identified,83,1,84,1,101,1,697,1,748,1","ig,83,2,84,1","igan,10,2,92,5,108,3,109,2,110,2,111,2,131,2,135,2,140,1,143,2,706,2,707,2,704,3,705,2,727,2,731,2,758,2,736,1,739,2,755,3,756,2,757,2,778,2,782,2,787,1,790,2","ii,8,2,9,1,10,1,81,1,82,5,83,1,84,1,86,1,88,1,89,7,92,5,94,1,99,2,100,2,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,1,108,1,109,1,110,1,111,1,115,2,117,1,119,2,124,2,129,1,131,1,135,1,140,2,143,1,145,1,148,1,149,1,695,2,706,1,707,1,696,2,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,1,704,1,705,1,711,2,713,1,715,2,720,2,725,1,727,1,731,1,747,2,758,1,736,2,739,1,741,1,744,1,745,1,746,2,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,1,755,1,756,1,757,1,762,2,764,1,766,2,771,2,776,1,778,1,782,1,787,2,790,1,795,1,796,1,5,1","iia,81,1,82,1,84,1","iii,9,1,82,2,89,2,92,1,98,2,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,1,117,2,126,2,129,2,148,1,149,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,1,713,2,725,2,722,2,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,1,764,2,776,2,795,1,796,1,1,2","ile,82,1","illustrate,85,2,84,1,87,1","illustrated,81,1,84,1,91,2","illustrates,82,1,83,2,87,1,89,1","illustrating,83,1","illustration,91,1","illustrations,92,1,98,1,126,1,722,1,1,1","illustrative,81,1,86,2","image,85,3,81,2,82,1,84,5,86,6,88,5,90,1","imágenes,88,1","images,84,1,88,1","immedi,91,1","immediate,98,1,116,1,126,1,712,1,722,1,763,1,1,1","immediately,79,1,81,2,86,2,88,1,91,2","impact,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,92,1,93,1,142,1,738,1,4,1","impermeable,89,5","impervious,79,1,89,2","implementation,91,1,98,1,116,1,126,1,712,1,722,1,763,1,1,1","implemented,89,2,91,4,119,1,715,1,766,1","implementing,98,1,115,1,124,1,126,1,711,1,720,1,722,1,762,1,771,1,1,1","implication,81,1,82,1","implications,83,1,84,2","implies,81,2,89,1","implying,83,1","importance,85,2,79,2,82,2,89,2,90,1","important,85,1,78,1,81,1,82,6,84,1,86,1,89,1,91,1,98,1,104,1,116,1,126,1,700,1,712,1,722,1,751,1,763,1,1,1","importantly,82,1,89,1","impose,81,1","imposed,82,2","impossible,81,1","impound,79,2","impractical,78,1","improve,78,1","improved,79,3,84,1,91,8,92,2","improvement,8,5,10,3,11,2,79,12,82,1,92,18,99,5,100,5,104,1,108,3,109,4,110,3,111,4,112,2,113,4,115,5,119,7,124,5,128,2,131,3,135,3,140,7,143,3,709,4,695,5,706,3,707,4,708,2,696,5,700,1,704,3,705,4,711,5,715,7,720,5,724,2,727,3,731,3,747,5,758,4,759,2,736,7,739,3,746,5,751,1,755,3,756,4,757,3,760,4,762,5,766,7,771,5,775,2,778,3,782,3,787,7,790,3","improvements,92,2,100,1,112,1,708,1,696,1,747,1,759,1","improving,92,1,98,1,126,1,128,1,722,1,724,1,775,1,1,1","inaccurate,81,1,86,1","incapable,89,1","inception,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,92,1,93,1,142,1,738,1,4,1","incidents,91,4","inclinometer,85,2","inclinometers,82,1","include,82,2,92,2,98,1,100,1,116,1,126,1,140,1,696,1,712,1,722,1,747,1,736,1,763,1,787,1,1,1","included,79,1,81,1,91,1","includes,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,89,1,92,5,93,1,139,1,141,1,142,1,735,1,737,1,738,1,786,1,788,1,4,1","including,79,1,81,1,82,1,92,1,124,1,720,1,771,1","inclusive,85,1,90,1,92,1,138,1,734,1,785,1","incorporate,89,1","incorporated,82,1,86,1,89,2,90,1,92,1,123,1,719,1,770,1","incorporating,83,1,89,2,92,1,98,1,126,1,129,1,141,1,725,1,722,1,737,1,776,1,788,1,1,1","increase,85,8,78,5,81,14,82,5,83,4,84,11,86,1,87,7,88,4,90,1,91,3,92,1,107,1,703,1,754,1","increased,79,3,82,2,83,1,86,1,89,1,91,4,104,1,700,1,751,1","increases,85,3,78,4,81,4,82,2,83,3,84,1,86,1,87,2,88,3,91,1,92,1,141,1,737,1,788,1","increasing,85,2,78,3,79,1,81,2,82,6,83,6,84,10,86,3,87,3,88,1,104,1,700,1,751,1","increasingly,78,1","increment,89,2","incremental,84,1","indefinite,91,1","indefinitely,91,4","independent,89,1,92,3,93,1,98,2,118,1,120,3,126,2,142,1,714,1,716,3,722,2,738,1,765,1,767,3,1,2,4,1","index,85,2,78,2,84,2,86,2,88,2","india,81,2","indian,81,3","indicate,85,1,92,1","indicated,79,1,82,1,83,1,84,1","indicates,81,1","indicating,82,1,88,1,98,1,126,1,722,1,1,1","indication,84,1,89,1","individual,78,3,83,1,84,2","indonesia,81,1","indonesian,85,1,81,2,86,1","induce,85,3,81,1,83,1,84,1,90,1","induced,85,14,78,1,81,36,82,15,83,23,84,35,86,9,87,12,88,5,89,3,90,6,94,4,145,4,741,4,5,4","induces,83,1,84,1","inducidos,88,1","industrial,7,1,127,1,134,1,9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766,1","jakarta,85,1,81,1,86,8","jalan,7,1,9,2,10,1,127,1,134,1,92,12,95,1,101,2,102,2,103,2,104,2,105,2,106,2,107,2,108,1,109,1,110,1,111,1,117,2,119,1,121,1,122,1,123,1,125,1,129,2,130,2,131,1,135,1,136,1,133,1,139,1,140,2,141,1,137,1,138,1,143,1,144,1,147,1,148,2,149,2,719,1,706,1,707,1,697,2,698,2,699,2,700,2,701,2,702,2,703,2,704,1,705,1,713,2,715,1,717,1,718,1,725,2,721,1,723,1,727,1,729,1,730,1,731,1,726,2,758,1,732,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,736,2,737,1,739,1,740,1,743,1,744,2,745,2,748,2,749,2,750,2,751,2,752,2,753,2,754,2,755,1,756,1,757,1,764,2,766,1,768,1,769,1,770,1,772,1,774,1,776,2,777,2,778,1,780,1,781,1,782,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,787,2,788,1,790,1,794,1,795,2,796,2,3,1","january,78,1,83,10,84,10","japan,81,4,94,1,145,1,741,1,5,1","jaring,91,1","jasa,7,10,8,10,9,10,10,10,11,10,12,10,13,10,79,2,82,1,127,8,134,8,91,2,92,80,93,10,94,9,95,5,97,8,96,4,98,12,99,10,100,9,101,9,102,8,103,8,104,8,105,8,106,8,107,8,108,8,109,9,110,8,111,8,112,8,113,8,114,8,115,8,116,8,117,8,118,8,119,8,120,8,121,8,122,8,123,8,124,8,125,8,126,12,128,9,129,9,130,8,131,8,135,8,136,8,132,8,133,8,139,8,140,8,141,8,137,8,138,8,142,10,143,9,144,5,145,9,147,8,146,4,148,8,149,8,709,8,710,8,719,8,695,10,706,8,707,8,708,8,696,9,697,9,698,8,699,8,700,8,701,8,702,8,703,8,704,8,705,9,711,8,712,8,713,8,714,8,715,8,716,8,717,8,718,8,720,8,725,9,721,8,722,12,723,8,724,9,727,8,728,8,729,8,730,8,731,8,726,8,747,9,758,8,759,8,732,8,733,8,734,8,735,8,736,8,737,8,738,10,739,9,740,5,741,9,743,8,742,4,744,8,745,8,746,10,748,9,749,8,750,8,751,8,752,8,753,8,754,8,755,8,756,9,757,8,760,8,761,8,762,8,763,8,764,8,765,8,766,8,767,8,768,8,769,8,770,8,771,8,772,8,774,8,775,9,776,9,777,8,778,8,780,8,781,8,782,8,783,8,784,8,785,8,786,8,787,8,788,8,790,9,794,8,795,8,796,8,1,12,2,8,4,10,3,5,5,9,6,4","jasamail,95,1,97,1,132,1,144,1,728,1,740,1,2,1,3,1","jaya,11,1,91,1,92,1,98,1,112,1,113,1,125,1,126,1,128,1,709,1,708,1,721,1,722,1,724,1,759,1,760,1,772,1,775,1,1,1","jayalah,92,1,137,1,733,1,784,1","jeopardize,82,1","jet,92,2","jetties,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,92,1,93,1,142,1,738,1,4,1","jetty,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,3,13,1,127,1,134,1,92,3,93,1,99,1,100,1,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,1,108,1,109,1,110,1,111,1,112,1,113,1,114,4,115,1,116,1,117,1,118,1,119,1,120,1,121,1,122,1,123,1,124,1,125,1,128,1,129,1,130,1,131,1,135,1,136,1,133,1,139,1,140,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,142,1,143,1,147,1,148,1,149,1,709,1,710,4,719,1,695,1,706,1,707,1,708,1,696,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,1,704,1,705,1,711,1,712,1,713,1,714,1,715,1,716,1,717,1,718,1,720,1,725,1,721,1,723,1,724,1,727,1,729,1,730,1,731,1,726,1,747,1,758,1,759,1,732,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,736,1,737,1,738,1,739,1,743,1,744,1,745,1,746,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,1,755,1,756,1,757,1,760,1,761,4,762,1,763,1,764,1,765,1,766,1,767,1,768,1,769,1,770,1,771,1,772,1,774,1,775,1,776,1,777,1,778,1,780,1,781,1,782,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,787,1,788,1,790,1,794,1,795,1,796,1,4,1","jewell,90,1","jjasa,92,9","jkr,7,1,9,1,12,1,13,2,127,1,134,1,92,8,98,1,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,1,109,1,111,1,114,1,116,2,117,1,121,1,122,1,123,1,125,1,126,1,129,1,130,1,135,1,136,1,133,1,139,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,147,1,148,1,149,1,710,1,719,1,707,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,1,705,1,712,2,713,1,717,1,718,1,725,1,721,1,722,1,723,1,729,1,730,1,731,1,726,1,758,1,732,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,737,1,743,1,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,1,756,1,761,1,763,2,764,1,768,1,769,1,770,1,772,1,774,1,776,1,777,1,780,1,781,1,782,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,788,1,794,1,795,1,796,1,1,1","job,97,2,132,2,728,2,2,2","john,10,1,82,1,92,1,108,1,109,1,110,1,111,1,131,1,135,1,143,1,706,1,707,1,704,1,705,1,727,1,731,1,758,1,739,1,755,1,756,1,757,1,778,1,782,1,790,1","joints,89,1","journal,78,5,81,7,82,5,83,10,84,7,86,2,87,2,88,1,89,2,90,2,91,1","jpg,15,8,16,8,17,8,18,8,19,8,20,8,21,8,22,8,23,8,24,8,25,8,26,8,27,8,28,8,29,8,30,8,31,8,32,8,33,8,34,8,35,8,36,8,37,8,38,8,39,8,40,8,41,8,42,8,43,8,44,8,45,8,46,8,47,8,48,8,49,8,50,8,51,8,52,8,53,8,54,8,55,8,56,8,57,8,58,8,59,8,60,8,61,8,62,8,63,8,64,8,65,8,66,8,67,8,68,8,69,8,70,8,71,8,72,8,73,8,74,8,75,8,76,8,77,8","juction,111,1,707,1,758,1","judgment,82,1","junction,9,1,10,1,11,1,92,6,98,1,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,1,108,1,109,2,110,1,111,2,112,1,113,1,117,1,126,1,128,1,129,1,131,1,135,2,143,1,148,1,149,1,709,1,706,1,707,2,708,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,1,704,1,705,2,713,1,725,1,722,1,724,1,727,1,731,2,758,2,759,1,739,1,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,1,755,1,756,2,757,1,760,1,764,1,775,1,776,1,778,1,782,2,790,1,795,1,796,1,1,1","juncture,82,1,83,1","june,82,1,83,1,84,1,92,1","jurong,89,2","jurutera,7,10,8,10,9,10,10,10,11,10,12,10,13,10,79,2,82,1,127,8,134,8,91,2,92,80,93,10,94,9,95,5,97,8,96,4,98,12,99,10,100,9,101,9,102,8,103,8,104,8,105,8,106,8,107,8,108,8,109,9,110,8,111,8,112,8,113,8,114,8,115,8,116,8,117,8,118,8,119,8,120,8,121,8,122,8,123,8,124,8,125,8,126,12,128,9,129,9,130,8,131,8,135,8,136,8,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,1,713,1,725,1,744,2,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,1,764,1,796,1,776,1,795,2","moduli,89,1","modulus,79,3,82,8,84,4,86,2,89,4,90,2","mohr,82,4,89,6","mohrcoulomb,89,4","moisture,78,4,79,1,91,1","moment,85,32,81,45,82,38,83,26,84,38,86,27,87,22,88,15,89,22,90,12,94,1,97,1,132,1,145,1,728,1,741,1,2,1,5,1","momentos,88,1","moments,85,1,81,5,82,7,83,14,84,3,86,2,87,6,88,4,90,3","money,81,2,86,2","monitor,85,1,81,2,91,3","monitored,85,3,78,1,79,1,81,1,82,1,83,1,84,3,86,2,87,3,88,4,90,2","monitoring,91,3","monorail,10,1,92,2,98,2,108,1,109,1,110,1,111,1,126,2,131,3,135,1,143,1,706,1,707,1,704,1,705,1,722,2,727,3,731,1,758,1,739,1,755,1,756,1,757,1,778,3,782,1,790,1,1,2","monsoon,91,1,119,1,715,1,766,1","month,83,1,84,1,98,1,125,1,126,1,721,1,722,1,772,1,1,1","months,83,1","mooring,13,1,98,3,116,3,126,3,712,3,722,3,763,3,1,3","mosque,7,2,127,2,133,2,92,6,121,2,122,2,123,2,125,2,130,2,134,2,136,4,139,2,141,3,137,2,138,2,147,2,719,2,717,2,718,2,721,2,723,2,729,2,730,2,726,2,732,4,733,2,734,2,735,2,737,3,743,2,768,2,769,2,770,2,772,2,774,2,777,2,780,2,781,2,783,4,784,2,785,2,786,2,788,3,794,2","mostly,78,2","motor,92,1","motta,83,1","mounted,85,1,84,1,86,1,88,1,90,1","mouse,94,1,145,1,741,1,5,1","mouvement,90,1","move,85,1,81,2,82,1,83,3,84,6,86,2,87,1","moved,81,2,86,2","movement,85,26,78,1,79,3,81,28,82,18,83,25,84,28,86,18,87,11,88,18,90,10,91,1,94,4,145,4,741,4,5,4","movements,85,14,81,15,82,17,83,20,84,18,86,7,87,2,88,10,90,8","moves,83,2,84,1,86,1,87,1,88,1,90,1","movimientos,88,3","moving,83,1,90,2","mp,82,3","mpa,79,1,84,1","mplex,92,1","mr,86,1,89,1","mrt,89,1","msc,91,1","muara,7,1,127,1,133,1,92,1,121,1,122,1,123,1,125,1,130,1,134,1,136,1,139,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,147,2,719,1,717,1,718,1,721,1,723,1,729,1,730,1,726,1,732,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,737,1,743,2,768,1,769,1,770,1,772,1,774,1,777,1,780,1,781,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,788,1,794,2","mud,78,1","mukah,7,2,127,2,133,2,92,9,121,2,122,2,123,2,125,2,130,2,134,2,136,7,139,2,141,2,137,3,138,2,147,2,719,2,717,2,718,2,721,2,723,2,729,2,730,2,726,2,732,7,733,3,734,2,735,2,737,2,743,2,768,2,769,2,770,2,772,2,774,2,777,2,780,2,781,2,783,7,784,3,785,2,786,2,788,2,794,2","mukahboulevard,136,4,732,4,783,4","mukahcomplex,137,4,733,4,784,4","mult,85,2","multi,9,1,92,2,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,2,107,1,117,1,129,1,148,1,149,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,2,703,1,713,1,725,1,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,2,754,1,764,1,796,1,776,1,795,1","multiple,83,1","multiplication,82,1","multiplied,82,1","mumbai,81,1","muro,88,1","murphy,92,1,93,1,118,1,120,1,142,1,714,1,716,1,738,1,765,1,767,1,4,1","museum,7,1,127,1,133,1,92,1,121,1,122,1,123,1,125,1,130,1,134,1,136,1,139,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,147,1,719,1,717,1,718,1,721,1,723,1,729,1,730,1,726,1,732,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,737,1,743,1,768,1,769,1,770,1,772,1,774,1,777,1,780,1,781,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,788,1,794,1","mw,106,1,702,1,753,1","mx,92,2","n2,81,1,82,4,88,1","n22,89,1","n26,89,1","n3,81,1,82,4","n33,89,1","n4,82,1","n6,89,1","n62,89,1","nagoya,89,1","nai,7,1,127,1,133,1,92,1,121,1,122,1,123,1,125,1,130,1,134,1,136,1,139,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,147,1,719,1,717,1,718,1,721,1,723,1,729,1,730,1,726,1,732,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,737,1,743,1,768,1,769,1,770,1,772,1,774,1,777,1,780,1,781,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,788,1,794,1","nais,88,1","nal,78,4","namely,81,1,83,1,88,1,89,1","narrower,81,1","national,85,4,79,1,81,6,82,5,83,4,84,6,86,5,87,5,88,2,90,3,91,1","natural,78,1,91,1","nature,82,2,83,1,84,1","nb,81,1,82,1","nc,85,2,86,2,88,2","ndash,10,1,93,1,108,1,109,3,110,1,111,2,118,1,120,2,131,1,135,1,142,1,143,1,706,1,707,2,704,1,705,3,714,1,716,2,727,1,731,1,758,2,738,1,739,1,755,1,756,3,757,1,765,1,767,2,778,1,782,1,790,1,4,1","ne1,78,1","near,81,2,82,1,86,1,88,1,91,1,106,1,702,1,753,1","nearby,85,1,81,5,84,1,86,1,87,1,88,1,89,2,91,1","nearer,85,1,81,1,84,1,88,1,89,1,91,2","necessary,85,2,81,1,82,5,89,1,90,2","needed,82,1,101,1,697,1,748,1","needs,79,2,81,1,82,1,83,1,91,1,104,1,700,1,751,1","negative,81,6,83,1,84,3,86,4,87,1,88,3","negeri,7,1,127,1,133,1,92,2,121,1,122,1,123,1,125,1,130,1,134,1,136,1,139,1,141,2,137,1,138,1,147,1,719,1,717,1,718,1,721,1,723,1,729,1,730,1,726,1,732,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,737,2,743,1,768,1,769,1,770,1,772,1,774,1,777,1,780,1,781,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,788,2,794,1","neglect,78,1","neglected,78,1,81,1","negligible,78,1,84,1,86,2,88,1,89,1","neill,78,2","net,101,1,697,1,748,1","netherlands,84,3","network,92,1,110,1,706,1,757,1","neutral,89,1","nevertheless,81,1,82,2,86,3,88,3,91,1","new,7,2,78,1,79,8,81,4,82,2,83,1,84,3,127,2,133,2,87,1,91,1,92,9,98,1,104,1,112,1,121,2,122,2,123,2,125,2,126,1,129,1,130,3,134,2,136,3,139,2,141,3,137,2,138,3,147,2,719,2,708,1,700,1,717,2,718,2,725,1,721,2,722,1,723,2,729,2,730,2,726,3,732,3,733,2,734,3,735,2,737,3,743,2,751,1,759,1,768,2,769,2,770,2,772,2,774,2,776,1,777,3,780,2,781,2,783,3,784,2,785,3,786,2,788,3,794,2,1,1","newcastle,78,3","next,47,8,84,2,91,1","nexta,48,8","nicoll,82,1","nm,81,1","node,89,2","noded,82,1,89,15","nominal,79,1,91,1","nominally,85,1","non,85,1,78,11,79,1,82,1,86,2,88,2,90,4","noncohesive,78,1","noncontact,84,1","nonetheless,81,1,89,2","nonlinear,82,1","nonvibratory,79,1","normal,86,1,89,1,91,1,98,2,115,2,126,2,711,2,722,2,762,2,1,2","normalized,79,1,82,4,83,5","normally,85,3,79,1,81,3,82,2,84,4,86,2,87,1,88,1,90,1","north,98,1,126,1,129,1,725,1,722,1,776,1,1,1","northeast,119,1,715,1,766,1","note,78,1,83,1,84,1,88,1,92,3","noted,85,6,78,1,81,6,82,4,83,7,84,9,86,4,87,2,88,3,90,3,91,5","noticeable,82,2,84,1,91,1","noticeably,89,1","nov,91,3","num,82,1","number,78,8,82,4,83,1,86,1,88,1","numbers,82,1","numerical,81,2,82,24,83,9,84,10,86,6,89,6,90,8,91,1","numerique,90,1","nurturing,98,1,126,1,722,1,1,1","nus,85,3,81,3,82,17,83,2,84,2,87,3,90,2,91,1","oasys,82,1","objective,92,2,99,1,113,1,709,1,695,1,746,1,760,1","objectives,89,1,98,2,112,1,116,1,126,2,708,1,712,1,722,2,759,1,763,1,1,2","observation,85,2,81,2,83,4,84,3,88,3,90,2,91,1","observational,89,1","observations,81,4,82,2,83,1,86,5,91,1","observe,89,1","observed,85,4,78,2,79,1,81,10,82,7,83,9,84,9,86,9,87,5,88,5,89,2,90,1,91,3","obstruction,84,1","obstructions,78,1","obtain,79,1,81,1,82,10,83,2,86,1","obtained,85,2,78,3,79,4,81,3,82,11,83,7,84,8,86,2,87,1,89,6,90,2,91,1","obtaining,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,92,1,93,1,142,1,738,1,4,1","obvious,81,1,86,1,89,1","occasionally,81,1","occasions,91,1","occur,85,1,78,1,81,3,82,1,84,2,86,3,87,1,88,3,89,1,90,1","occurence,88,1","occurred,78,1,81,2,82,1,86,1,91,2","occurrence,85,1,79,1,81,1,86,4,88,2,90,1","occurring,91,1","occurs,81,3,82,3,83,1,84,2,86,1,91,1,98,1,115,1,126,1,711,1,722,1,762,1,1,1","ocr,82,1,84,1","ocr0,82,1,84,1","october,78,1","off,7,1,79,1,127,1,133,1,88,1,92,1,98,1,121,1,122,1,123,1,125,1,126,1,129,1,130,2,134,1,136,1,139,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,147,1,719,1,717,1,718,1,725,1,721,1,722,1,723,1,729,1,730,1,726,2,732,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,737,1,743,1,768,1,769,1,770,1,772,1,774,1,776,1,777,2,780,1,781,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,788,1,794,1,1,1","offer,81,1,83,1","offered,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,92,1,93,1,142,1,738,1,4,1","offers,89,1,92,2,122,1,718,1,769,1","office,7,5,81,1,86,1,127,5,133,8,92,18,121,5,122,5,123,6,125,5,130,5,134,5,136,5,139,5,141,6,137,7,138,5,147,6,719,6,717,5,718,5,721,5,723,5,729,8,730,5,726,5,732,5,733,7,734,5,735,5,737,6,743,6,768,5,769,5,770,6,772,5,774,5,777,5,780,8,781,5,783,5,784,7,785,5,786,5,788,6,794,6","offices,92,2","oil,7,2,8,2,9,2,10,2,11,2,12,2,13,2,81,1,127,1,133,1,92,9,93,8,98,3,99,1,100,1,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,1,108,1,109,1,110,1,111,1,112,1,113,1,114,1,115,1,116,1,117,1,118,7,119,1,120,9,121,1,122,1,123,1,124,1,125,1,126,3,128,1,129,1,130,1,131,1,134,1,135,1,136,1,139,1,140,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,142,8,143,1,147,1,148,1,149,1,709,1,710,1,719,1,695,1,706,1,707,1,708,1,696,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,1,704,1,705,1,711,1,712,1,713,1,714,7,715,1,716,9,717,1,718,1,720,1,725,1,721,1,722,3,723,1,724,1,727,1,729,1,730,1,731,1,726,1,747,1,758,1,732,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,736,1,737,1,738,8,739,1,743,1,744,1,745,1,746,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,1,755,1,756,1,757,1,759,1,760,1,761,1,762,1,763,1,764,1,765,7,766,1,767,9,768,1,769,1,770,1,771,1,772,1,774,1,796,1,775,1,776,1,777,1,778,1,780,1,781,1,782,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,787,1,788,1,790,1,794,1,795,1,1,3,4,8","oka,84,1,86,1,88,1","okamura,84,1,86,1,88,1","old,79,3,92,1,136,1,732,1,783,1","omputer,92,1","once,81,1,82,2,83,1,84,2,91,1","ong,85,17,79,1,81,23,82,31,83,17,84,2,86,12,87,6,88,5,89,9,90,5,91,1,94,13,145,13,741,13,5,13","ong1,81,1,84,1","ong2,83,1,87,1","ongdel,82,1","onset,87,1,91,1","onto,85,2,81,2,83,3,86,1,87,2,88,2","ooi,81,1,86,1","op,91,1","open,83,1,84,1,88,1,92,1,98,1,126,1,129,1,725,1,722,1,776,1,1,1","openings,97,1,132,1,728,1,2,1","operating,79,1","operation,79,2,89,1,91,1,92,1,98,1,126,1,143,1,722,1,739,1,790,1,1,1","operational,79,5,92,1,113,1,709,1,760,1","opment,83,1","opposed,81,1,86,1,88,1,91,1","opposing,86,1","opposite,85,1,86,1,88,1,89,1,90,1","optimas,83,1,84,1","optimisation,10,1,92,1,108,1,109,1,110,1,111,1,131,1,135,1,143,1,706,1,707,1,704,1,705,1,727,1,731,1,758,1,739,1,755,1,756,1,757,1,778,1,782,1,790,1","optimizing,82,1","optimum,78,4","option,92,3,94,1,99,3,145,1,695,3,741,1,746,3,5,1","options,8,1,92,3,99,2,100,1,113,1,115,1,119,1,124,1,140,1,709,1,695,2,696,1,711,1,715,1,720,1,747,1,736,1,746,2,760,1,762,1,766,1,771,1,787,1","order,85,2,78,1,79,8,81,2,82,6,83,4,84,2,89,5,90,1,91,1","organic,86,1","organisation,91,1","original,78,1,82,2,84,2,90,1","osaka,81,1,94,1,145,1,741,1,5,1","otherwise,82,2,84,2,87,1","ournal,84,3","outer,86,1,88,1","outlet,79,1,98,1,126,1,129,1,725,1,722,1,776,1,1,1","outlined,82,1","outlying,110,1,706,1,757,1","output,82,5,89,2","outside,82,1","outwards,81,1","overall,82,1,83,1,86,1,88,1,92,3,98,2,103,1,111,1,126,2,128,1,135,1,707,1,699,1,722,2,724,1,731,1,758,1,750,1,775,1,782,1,1,2","overburden,82,1,84,1,86,1","overcome,81,3,89,1","overconsolidated,85,1,83,1,84,4,86,1,87,1,88,1,90,1","overconsolidation,84,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5,699,4,700,4,701,4,702,5,703,5,704,1,705,1,712,3,713,4,714,2,716,1,717,8,718,9,725,5,721,8,722,4,723,8,727,1,729,9,730,8,731,1,726,9,758,1,732,9,733,9,734,8,735,8,737,9,738,1,739,1,743,9,744,4,745,4,746,1,748,4,749,5,750,4,751,4,752,4,753,5,754,5,755,1,756,1,757,2,759,1,761,4,763,3,764,4,765,2,767,1,768,8,769,9,770,9,772,8,774,8,796,4,776,5,777,9,778,1,780,9,781,8,782,1,783,9,784,9,785,8,786,8,788,9,790,1,794,9,795,4,1,4,4,1","prospect,78,1","protect,126,1,98,1,115,1,711,1,722,1,762,1,1,1","protected,86,1,91,1","protection,8,1,92,1,99,1,100,1,115,1,119,1,124,3,140,1,695,1,696,1,711,1,715,1,720,3,747,1,736,1,746,1,762,1,766,1,771,3,787,1","prototype,85,4,81,12,82,4,83,1,84,9,86,9,87,6,88,10,90,3","prove,89,1","proved,79,1","proven,79,1","provide,81,4,82,3,83,2,84,1,86,1,126,3,89,3,92,1,98,3,115,1,116,2,139,1,711,1,712,2,722,3,735,1,762,1,763,2,786,1,1,3","provided,79,4,81,1,126,1,133,1,91,1,92,3,98,1,116,1,139,1,712,1,722,1,729,1,735,1,763,1,780,1,786,1,1,1","provides,79,1,82,1,133,1,89,1,92,1,729,1,780,1","providing,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,82,1,126,2,92,2,93,1,98,2,142,1,722,2,738,1,1,2,4,1","provoqué,90,1","proximity,84,1","prudent,79,1","prudently,89,1","pte,81,1,83,1,84,1,89,1","pty,82,1,92,1,129,1,725,1,776,1","public,11,1,126,2,92,4,98,2,112,1,113,1,128,3,709,1,708,1,722,2,724,3,759,1,760,1,775,3,1,2","publication,81,2,83,1,84,1,86,1,90,1","publications,92,1","published,94,1,145,1,741,1,5,1","puchong,11,1,92,2,112,1,113,3,128,1,709,3,708,1,724,1,759,1,760,3,775,1","pujut,11,1,92,2,112,1,113,3,128,1,709,3,708,1,724,1,759,1,760,3,775,1","pujutpuchong,113,4,709,4,760,4","pulau,8,1,92,1,99,1,100,1,115,1,119,1,124,1,140,1,695,1,696,1,711,1,715,1,720,1,747,1,736,1,746,1,762,1,766,1,771,1,787,1","pull,79,2","pump,126,1,92,2,98,1,100,1,117,1,696,1,713,1,722,1,747,1,764,1,1,1","pumped,79,1,126,1,91,1,98,1,115,1,711,1,722,1,762,1,1,1","pumping,126,1,91,15,98,1,115,1,711,1,722,1,762,1,1,1","purely,85,1","purpose,9,1,126,1,92,4,98,1,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,2,107,1,109,1,117,1,128,1,129,1,148,1,149,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,2,703,1,705,1,713,1,725,1,722,1,724,1,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,2,754,1,756,1,764,1,796,1,775,1,776,1,795,1,1,1","purposes,126,1,89,1,98,1,103,1,116,1,699,1,712,1,722,1,750,1,763,1,1,1","pusa,126,1,98,1,116,1,712,1,722,1,763,1,1,1","push,79,3,82,1,83,1,84,1","pushed,86,1,88,1","pushing,79,1","py,82,8,83,3,84,1,86,5,90,6","quadrilateral,89,3","qualified,82,1","quality,82,2,92,2,99,2,695,2,746,2","quantify,85,1,90,1","quantities,78,1,82,1,88,1","quantity,78,1,79,2,82,4","quarters,92,1,130,1,726,1,777,1","question,91,1","quickly,78,1,81,1,92,1","quite,83,1,88,1","r2,78,1","r5,126,1,92,1,98,1,109,1,111,1,135,1,707,1,705,1,722,1,731,1,758,1,756,1,782,1,1,1","radial,79,1","radius,81,3,82,3","rained,84,1,88,1","rainfall,85,2,126,1,91,4,98,1,115,1,711,1,722,1,762,1,1,1","raise,79,1","raised,79,14,126,1,94,1,98,1,115,1,145,1,711,1,722,1,741,1,762,1,1,1,5,1","raising,9,1,79,4,92,1,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,4,105,2,106,1,107,1,117,1,129,1,148,1,149,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,4,701,2,702,1,703,1,713,1,725,1,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,4,752,2,753,1,754,1,764,1,796,1,776,1,795,1","rakan,101,2,697,2,748,2","rambungan,12,1,92,1,114,1,710,1,761,1","ran,81,4","randolph,82,2,83,2,84,4,86,2,87,2,88,2,90,1","range,7,3,8,3,9,3,10,3,11,3,12,3,13,3,78,2,84,1,126,1,92,6,93,3,98,1,142,3,722,1,738,3,1,1,4,3","ranges,82,1,84,2","rantau,12,1,92,1,114,1,710,1,761,1","rap,79,1","rapid,79,3,84,2,89,1,91,3","rapidly,91,1","rarely,78,1","rate,85,1,78,1,79,5,82,1,84,4,86,2,88,1,90,1,91,1","rates,91,1","rather,82,1,84,1","ratio,85,1,78,3,79,7,82,9,83,5,84,1,86,1,88,1,89,4","rational,92,1","raudkivi,78,2","raw,9,1,126,1,92,1,98,1,101,2,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,1,117,2,129,1,148,1,149,1,697,2,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,1,713,2,725,1,722,1,744,1,745,1,748,2,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,1,764,2,796,1,776,1,795,1,1,1","raya,126,1,92,5,98,1,101,1,109,2,111,1,114,1,117,1,129,1,710,1,707,1,697,1,705,2,713,1,725,1,722,1,758,1,748,1,756,2,761,1,764,1,776,1,1,1","rc,79,1,82,2,92,2,108,1,704,1,755,1","rdquo,100,1,101,1,696,1,697,1,747,1,748,1","reach,78,1,79,1,84,4,87,1,91,1","reached,85,1,79,1,81,1,82,5,83,3,84,3,86,3,88,1,90,3,91,2","reaches,78,1,81,3,82,1,83,2,84,1,87,1,88,1,89,2,91,1","reaching,79,1,83,2,86,1,92,1,105,1,701,1,752,1","reaction,82,4,84,2,86,1,90,1","reactions,82,1","readily,82,1","readings,84,6,86,1,89,1,91,1","real,85,2,81,2,82,1,86,1,88,1","realistic,82,3,84,1,89,5,91,1","realistically,82,1","reality,84,2","reallife,86,1","realty,92,1,137,1,733,1,784,1","reanalyzed,82,1,84,1","rear,82,2","reason,78,1,82,1,84,1,88,1,89,1,91,1,92,1,105,1,701,1,752,1","reasonable,81,1,82,3,84,2,86,3,89,1,90,1","reasonably,85,1,79,1,81,1,82,6,83,6,84,4,89,5,91,1","reassures,82,1","rebound,81,1,86,2","receiving,92,1,93,1,118,1,120,1,142,1,714,1,716,1,738,1,765,1,767,1,4,1","recently,84,1","recess,78,1","recharge,84,1","recipes,81,1","recirculating,78,1","reclaimed,92,1,134,1,730,1,781,1","reclamation,92,1","recognized,89,2","recommended,81,2,84,1,89,1,91,4,92,2,99,1,100,1,695,1,696,1,747,1,746,1","recommends,92,1,100,1,696,1,747,1","reconsolidate,84,1","reconsolidation,81,1,82,2,84,2,86,3,88,5","recorded,85,1,83,1,86,2,87,2,88,3","recording,86,1","recreational,92,2,99,1,130,1,695,1,726,1,746,1,777,1","rectangular,82,4,89,6","rectification,13,1,92,1,116,1,712,1,763,1","redesign,91,1","redistribution,81,1,86,2,88,3","reduce,81,1,82,1,83,1,84,5,86,2,87,2,88,1,90,3,91,3","reduced,81,1,82,4,83,4,84,1,86,4,88,1,89,1,90,1,91,2","reduces,85,1,79,1,81,1,82,1,83,1,84,1,86,2,87,1,88,4","reducing,78,1,83,1","reduction,81,4,82,10,83,10,84,6,86,2,87,3,88,2,90,2,91,1","reference,84,1,86,1,88,1,89,3,92,1","references,85,1,78,1,79,1,81,1,82,1,83,1,84,1,86,1,87,1,88,1,89,1,90,1,91,1,92,2","refers,90,1","refilling,78,2","refined,82,1","refinery,92,1,93,1,118,1,120,1,142,1,714,1,716,1,738,1,765,1,767,1,4,1","reflect,82,1,84,2,86,1,89,1","reflected,88,1","reflecting,89,1","reflects,82,1,84,1","regarding,86,1","regardless,89,1","regime,84,1,88,1","region,82,1,83,1,84,3,126,1,88,1,89,1,91,1,98,1,116,1,712,1,722,1,763,1,1,1","regional,7,2,79,1,126,1,127,2,133,4,91,1,92,5,98,1,115,1,121,2,122,2,123,3,125,2,130,2,134,2,136,2,139,2,141,2,137,2,138,2,147,2,719,3,711,1,717,2,718,2,721,2,722,1,723,2,729,4,730,2,726,2,732,2,733,2,734,2,735,2,737,2,743,2,762,1,768,2,769,2,770,3,772,2,774,2,777,2,780,4,781,2,783,2,784,2,785,2,786,2,788,2,794,2,1,1","regions,88,1","register,81,1,86,1,88,1,92,1","registered,126,1,92,1,98,1,722,1,1,1","registers,81,1,86,2,88,3","regression,78,5","regular,81,1,82,1,83,1,84,1","regularly,87,1","regulated,79,1","regulations,112,1,708,1,759,1","reinforced,85,1","reinforcement,85,1,79,1","reinforces,85,1,81,1","related,78,1,82,1,83,1,84,1,126,1,89,2,90,1,91,1,92,1,98,1,120,1,716,1,722,1,767,1,1,1","relation,82,3,84,1,87,1","relationship,85,1,78,2,81,2,82,1,89,2,91,1","relatively,85,1,78,1,79,1,81,4,82,3,83,4,84,2,86,4,87,1,88,8,89,2,90,2,91,2","relaxation,84,1","relaxed,89,1","release,85,1,126,1,88,1,90,1,98,1,129,1,725,1,722,1,776,1,1,1","released,84,1,86,1,88,1,94,14,145,14,741,14,5,14","releasing,81,1,82,1,84,1","relevant,82,2,84,1","reliability,82,1,86,1,79,1,89,2","reliable,82,1,86,2,81,1,84,1,89,4","relief,82,6,86,1,81,1,83,3,84,6","relocation,92,1","remain,82,2,83,1,84,1,90,1","remaining,82,1,83,2,89,1","remains,82,1,86,1,83,5,84,1,88,2,89,1","remarks,89,1","remedial,81,1,91,1","remedy,81,1","remote,84,1","removal,86,1,89,2","remove,89,11","removed,86,1,83,2,84,5,88,2,89,1","rendered,85,2,83,1,84,1","renders,86,1,81,1","renovation,7,1,127,1,133,1,92,1,121,1,122,1,123,1,125,1,130,1,134,1,136,1,139,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,147,1,719,1,717,1,718,1,721,1,723,1,729,1,730,1,726,1,732,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,737,1,743,1,768,1,769,1,770,1,772,1,774,1,777,1,780,1,781,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,788,1,794,1","rep,78,3","repair,126,1,98,1,116,1,712,1,722,1,763,1,1,1","repeatability,86,1,81,1","replace,126,1,92,1,98,1,120,1,716,1,722,1,767,1,1,1","replaced,82,1,85,2,86,1,81,1,83,1,84,2,88,1,91,1","replacement,85,1","replicate,82,1","réponses,90,1","report,78,2,79,1","reported,82,2,85,2,86,5,81,8,83,2,84,1,87,3,91,1","represent,90,1","representation,89,1","representative,78,1,89,2","represented,82,4,86,1,84,2,90,1","representing,82,1","represents,82,1,86,1,81,1","republic,86,1,87,1","request,83,1,84,1","require,82,2,84,2","required,82,2,79,4,84,1,89,5","requirement,82,1,89,1","requirements,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,89,1,92,1,93,1,97,1,132,1,142,1,728,1,738,1,2,1,4,1","requires,82,2,86,1,84,1,90,1","research,78,2,79,1,81,1,91,3","researchers,82,1,81,3","resemble,86,1","resembles,81,1","reservoir,13,1,79,4,126,5,92,3,98,5,116,1,117,2,129,3,712,1,713,2,725,3,722,5,763,1,764,2,776,3,1,5","reservoirs,9,1,101,1,102,1,103,3,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,1,117,1,129,1,148,1,149,1,697,1,698,1,699,3,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,1,713,1,725,1,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,3,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,1,764,1,796,1,776,1,795,1","residential,7,1,127,1,133,1,92,1,110,1,121,1,122,1,123,1,125,1,130,2,134,1,136,1,139,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,147,1,719,1,706,1,717,1,718,1,721,1,723,1,729,1,730,1,726,2,732,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,737,1,743,1,757,1,768,1,769,1,770,1,772,1,774,1,777,2,780,1,781,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,788,1,794,1","residual,79,1,89,5,91,1","resist,89,1","resistance,82,1,86,1,78,1,83,2,84,1,89,1,90,1","résistance,90,1","resisting,84,1","resolution,85,2,86,2,81,2,83,2,84,4,87,2,88,2,90,1","resort,7,1,127,1,133,1,92,1,121,1,122,1,123,1,125,1,130,1,134,2,136,1,139,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,147,1,719,1,717,1,718,1,721,1,723,1,729,1,730,2,726,1,732,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,737,1,743,1,768,1,769,1,770,1,772,1,774,1,777,1,780,1,781,2,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,788,1,794,1","resourcemenu,54,8","resources,7,1,8,1,9,1,82,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,23,8,78,1,84,1,126,1,91,1,92,1,93,1,94,8,97,4,98,1,101,1,112,1,132,4,142,1,145,8,708,1,697,1,722,1,728,4,738,1,741,8,748,1,759,1,1,1,2,4,4,1,5,8","respect,82,1,83,1","respective,79,1,84,2,87,1,89,2","respectively,82,11,85,3,86,3,79,1,81,3,83,5,84,8,126,1,88,5,89,4,90,3,91,4,92,1,98,1,118,1,714,1,722,1,765,1,1,1","response,82,7,86,2,81,3,84,5,87,3,88,1,89,1","responses,82,13,85,1,86,16,81,5,83,13,84,11,88,3,89,3,90,15","responsive,82,1","rest,84,1,89,1","rested,84,1","resthouse,92,2","resting,81,1","reston,78,1","restrained,83,1","restraint,82,1","restricted,88,1","result,82,1,78,1,79,1,81,1,84,3,87,2,89,1,91,2,112,2,708,2,759,2","resultant,83,2","resultats,90,2","resulted,82,2,89,1","resulting,82,1,85,1,86,1,81,2,83,4,84,2,87,3,88,1","results,82,19,85,8,86,10,78,2,79,1,81,9,83,6,84,12,87,8,88,3,89,15,90,7,91,5","resume,90,1,91,1","resumed,91,1","resumen,88,1","retained,82,1,86,2,81,2,84,5,88,5,89,2","retaining,82,10,85,7,86,9,81,9,83,16,84,19,126,1,87,13,88,5,89,6,90,4,92,1,98,1,143,1,722,1,739,1,790,1,1,1","reticulation,7,2,8,2,9,2,10,2,11,2,12,2,13,2,92,2,93,2,142,2,738,2,4,2","retrieved,88,1","rev1,82,4","reveal,82,3,85,1,86,1,81,1,83,3,84,5,87,1,90,1,91,1","revealed,82,1,85,2,86,1,79,1,84,2,87,1","reveals,82,3,85,1,78,1,81,2,83,3,84,8,90,2,91,1","review,82,1,81,1,83,1,84,1,89,1","revised,82,3,84,2,91,1,112,1,708,1,759,1","reward,126,1,98,1,722,1,1,1","reynolds,78,6","rgc,13,1,126,2,98,2,116,2,712,2,722,2,763,2,1,2","rhs,89,2","richardson,78,3","rig,79,2","right,126,3,91,1,94,1,98,3,129,3,145,1,725,3,722,3,741,1,776,3,1,3,5,1","righthand,85,1","rigid,82,1,81,1,83,2,91,1","rigidity,82,12,85,1,86,3,81,1,84,3,87,2,88,2,89,1,90,2","rigorous,82,1","ringgit,126,1,92,1,98,1,112,1,131,1,708,1,722,1,727,1,759,1,778,1,1,1","rinter,89,1","rinter2,89,1","rip,79,1","rise,84,2,92,1","rising,84,1","risk,78,1,81,1","river,7,1,8,4,9,1,82,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,78,1,126,1,91,3,92,12,93,1,98,1,99,5,100,3,115,3,117,1,119,3,124,3,140,8,142,1,695,5,696,3,711,3,713,1,715,3,720,3,722,1,747,3,736,8,738,1,746,5,762,3,764,1,766,3,771,3,787,8,1,1,4,1","riverbank,82,1,86,1,81,1","riverwall,12,2,92,2,114,3,710,3,761,3","rl,126,1,89,15,98,1,129,1,725,1,722,1,776,1,1,1","rm,92,5","rm0,92,1","rm1,92,1","rm10,92,2","rm100,92,1","rm12,92,2","rm16,92,2","rm17,92,2","rm176,106,1,702,1,753,1","rm2,92,4","rm20,92,3","rm200,92,2","rm25,92,2","rm3,92,1","rm30,92,2","rm4,92,2","rm44,92,1","rm45,92,1","rm46,92,1","rm5,92,2","rm54,92,1","rm580,92,1","rm6,92,2","rm60,92,4","rm65,92,1","rm7,92,1","rm90,92,1","road,7,1,9,1,10,12,126,5,127,1,133,1,92,27,98,5,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,1,108,13,109,18,110,12,111,16,112,1,117,1,121,1,122,2,123,1,125,1,129,1,130,1,134,1,135,17,136,1,131,12,139,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,143,12,147,1,148,1,149,1,719,1,706,12,707,16,708,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,1,704,13,705,18,713,1,717,1,718,2,725,1,721,1,722,5,723,1,727,12,729,1,730,1,731,17,726,1,758,16,732,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,737,1,739,12,743,1,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,1,755,13,756,18,757,12,759,1,764,1,768,1,769,2,770,1,772,1,774,1,796,1,776,1,777,1,778,12,780,1,781,1,782,17,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,788,1,790,12,794,1,795,1,1,5","roads,7,2,8,2,9,2,10,4,11,2,12,2,13,2,81,1,126,2,127,1,133,1,92,4,93,2,98,2,99,1,100,1,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,1,108,3,109,3,110,3,111,3,112,1,113,1,114,1,115,2,116,1,117,1,118,1,119,1,120,1,121,1,122,1,123,1,124,1,125,1,128,1,129,1,130,1,134,1,135,3,136,1,131,3,139,1,140,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,142,2,143,3,147,1,148,1,149,1,709,1,710,1,719,1,695,1,706,3,707,3,708,1,696,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,1,704,3,705,3,711,2,712,1,713,1,714,1,715,1,716,1,717,1,718,1,720,1,725,1,721,1,722,2,723,1,724,1,727,3,729,1,730,1,731,3,726,1,747,1,758,3,732,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,736,1,737,1,738,2,739,3,743,1,744,1,745,1,746,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,1,755,3,756,3,757,3,759,1,760,1,761,1,762,2,763,1,764,1,765,1,766,1,767,1,768,1,769,1,770,1,771,1,772,1,774,1,796,1,775,1,776,1,777,1,778,3,780,1,781,1,782,3,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,787,1,788,1,790,3,794,1,795,1,1,2,4,2","roban,92,1,109,1,705,1,756,1","robot,84,2","rock,89,1,91,10","rockfill,81,1","rogue,79,1","role,82,1,81,1,126,1,89,1,94,2,98,1,104,1,145,2,700,1,722,1,741,2,751,1,1,1,5,2","roof,89,2,92,1,139,1,735,1,786,1","roofing,92,1,139,1,735,1,786,1","room,81,1,92,2","rose,84,1,91,1","rota,81,1","rotate,87,1","rotated,86,1,79,1","rotates,82,1,81,1","rotation,85,5,79,2,81,13,83,3,84,1,89,1","rotations,82,1","rotterdam,82,1,84,3,91,1","roundabout,11,1,92,1,110,1,112,1,113,1,128,1,709,1,706,1,708,1,724,1,757,1,759,1,760,1,775,1","routes,112,1,119,1,708,1,715,1,759,1,766,1","rouundabout,92,1,113,1,709,1,760,1","rp,82,8","rsquo,7,2,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,126,1,127,1,133,1,93,1,98,1,99,2,104,2,121,1,122,1,123,1,125,1,130,1,134,1,136,1,139,1,141,1,137,2,138,1,142,1,147,2,719,1,695,2,700,2,717,1,718,1,721,1,722,1,723,1,729,1,730,1,726,1,732,1,733,2,734,1,735,1,737,1,738,1,743,2,746,2,751,2,768,1,769,1,770,1,772,1,774,1,777,1,780,1,781,1,783,1,784,2,785,1,786,1,788,1,794,2,1,1,4,1","ru,79,3","rubber,9,1,84,1,92,5,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,3,106,1,107,2,117,1,129,1,148,1,149,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,3,702,1,703,2,713,1,725,1,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,3,753,1,754,2,764,1,796,1,776,1,795,1","rule,82,1","run,78,1,89,2","runner,89,1","rupture,85,1,81,4","s1,89,11","s2,89,2","s3,89,3","s4,89,8","s5,89,3","saberkas,11,1,92,1,112,1,113,1,128,1,709,1,708,1,724,1,759,1,760,1,775,1","saddle,126,2,98,2,129,2,725,2,722,2,776,2,1,2","safe,82,1,126,1,92,2,98,1,101,1,107,1,116,1,697,1,703,1,712,1,722,1,748,1,754,1,763,1,1,1","safeguard,82,1","safer,91,2","safety,82,2,79,4,81,1,83,1,84,1,88,1,91,2","sage,82,2,89,74,94,1,145,1,741,1,5,1","sagecrisp,82,1,89,4","sage­crisp,89,1","said,82,1","salim,9,2,101,2,102,2,103,2,104,2,105,2,106,2,107,2,117,2,129,2,148,2,149,2,697,2,698,2,699,2,700,2,701,2,702,2,703,2,713,2,725,2,744,2,745,2,748,2,749,2,750,2,751,2,752,2,753,2,754,2,764,2,796,2,776,2,795,2","saline,92,1,105,1,701,1,752,1","saliran,92,1","sama,126,1,98,1,125,1,721,1,722,1,772,1,1,1","samajaya,7,1,9,2,127,1,133,1,92,2,101,2,102,2,103,8,104,2,105,2,106,2,107,2,117,2,121,1,122,1,123,1,125,1,129,2,130,1,134,1,136,1,139,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,147,1,148,2,149,2,719,1,697,2,698,2,699,8,700,2,701,2,702,2,703,2,713,2,717,1,718,1,725,2,721,1,723,1,729,1,730,1,726,1,732,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,737,1,743,1,744,2,745,2,748,2,749,2,750,8,751,2,752,2,753,2,754,2,764,2,768,1,769,1,770,1,772,1,774,1,796,2,776,2,777,1,780,1,781,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,788,1,794,1,795,2","samarahan,7,1,127,1,133,1,92,2,121,1,122,1,123,2,125,1,130,1,134,1,136,1,139,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,147,1,719,2,717,1,718,1,721,1,723,1,729,1,730,1,726,1,732,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,737,1,743,1,768,1,769,1,770,2,772,1,774,1,777,1,780,1,781,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,788,1,794,1","same,82,3,85,1,86,1,78,3,79,2,81,1,83,11,84,4,89,4,91,2","sample,82,2,86,2,84,4,88,2","sampled,79,1,84,1","samples,78,3,79,1","sand,82,11,85,9,86,13,78,14,79,7,81,24,83,8,84,15,87,5,88,8,89,3,90,5,91,51,94,1,145,1,741,1,5,1","sandfilling,91,2","sandstone,79,1","santubong,9,1,92,1,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,1,117,1,129,1,148,1,149,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,1,713,1,725,1,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,1,764,1,796,1,776,1,795,1","sarawak,7,14,8,25,9,15,82,2,10,10,11,10,12,11,13,12,79,3,126,17,127,12,133,12,91,3,92,142,93,12,94,9,95,7,97,8,96,4,98,17,99,28,100,24,101,15,102,14,103,14,104,13,105,14,106,14,107,18,108,8,109,9,110,8,111,8,112,8,113,9,114,9,115,27,116,10,117,13,118,10,119,27,120,12,121,12,122,12,123,13,124,24,125,13,128,10,129,15,130,12,134,12,135,8,136,13,131,8,132,8,139,15,140,22,141,14,137,12,138,12,142,12,143,9,144,7,145,9,146,4,147,12,148,13,149,13,709,9,710,9,719,13,695,28,706,8,707,8,708,8,696,24,697,15,698,14,699,14,700,13,701,14,702,14,703,18,704,8,705,9,711,27,712,10,713,13,714,10,715,27,716,12,717,12,718,12,720,24,724,10,725,15,721,13,722,17,723,12,727,8,728,8,729,12,730,12,731,8,726,12,747,24,758,8,732,13,733,12,734,12,735,15,736,22,737,14,738,12,739,9,740,7,741,9,743,12,742,4,744,13,745,13,746,28,748,15,749,14,750,14,751,13,752,14,753,14,754,18,755,8,756,9,757,8,759,8,760,9,761,9,762,27,763,10,764,13,765,10,766,27,767,12,768,12,769,12,770,13,771,24,772,13,774,12,796,13,775,10,776,15,777,12,778,8,780,12,781,12,782,8,783,13,784,12,785,12,786,15,787,22,788,14,790,9,794,12,795,13,1,17,2,8,4,12,3,7,5,9,6,4","sarikei,9,1,10,3,92,8,101,5,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,1,108,3,109,3,110,3,111,5,117,1,129,1,135,3,131,3,143,3,148,1,149,1,706,3,707,5,697,5,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,1,704,3,705,3,713,1,725,1,727,3,731,3,758,5,739,3,744,1,745,1,748,5,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,1,755,3,756,3,757,3,764,1,796,1,776,1,778,3,782,3,790,3,795,1","saskatchewan,91,1","saskatoon,91,1","satisfactory,78,1","satisfy,82,1","satok,91,1,92,2","saturated,79,1,81,1,91,2","saturation,79,1,91,1","save,94,1,145,1,741,1,5,1","scale,85,7,86,7,81,15,83,1,84,5,87,3,88,9,90,2","scaling,82,3,85,1,81,10,88,1","scan,80,4,84,1,88,1","scenario,82,1,79,1,84,1,89,10","scenarios,89,1","schematic,81,1","schematically,82,1","scheme,8,4,133,1,92,5,99,4,100,4,115,4,119,4,124,7,140,3,695,4,696,4,711,4,715,4,720,7,729,1,747,4,736,3,746,4,762,4,766,4,771,7,780,1,787,3","schneider,78,1","schofield,81,2,84,2","scholar,79,1,91,1","school,78,2","scour,78,78,94,2,145,2,741,2,5,2","scoured,78,1","scouring,78,6","scours,78,1","screening,82,1","sdn,7,6,8,6,9,6,82,1,10,7,11,6,12,6,13,6,79,4,126,9,127,4,133,4,91,2,92,99,93,10,94,5,95,5,97,4,96,4,98,9,99,8,100,6,101,6,102,4,103,4,104,4,105,4,106,4,107,4,108,5,109,5,110,6,111,5,112,4,113,4,114,4,115,4,116,4,117,4,118,10,119,4,120,13,121,4,122,4,123,5,124,4,125,5,128,5,129,6,130,4,134,4,135,6,136,4,131,5,132,4,139,4,140,4,141,4,137,5,138,4,142,10,143,6,144,5,145,5,146,4,147,4,148,4,149,4,709,4,710,4,719,5,695,8,706,6,707,5,708,4,696,6,697,6,698,4,699,4,700,4,701,4,702,4,703,4,704,5,705,5,711,4,712,4,713,4,714,10,715,4,716,13,717,4,718,4,720,4,724,5,725,6,721,5,722,9,723,4,727,5,728,4,729,4,730,4,731,6,726,4,747,6,758,5,732,4,733,5,734,4,735,4,736,4,737,4,738,10,739,6,740,5,741,5,743,4,742,4,744,4,745,4,746,8,748,6,749,4,750,4,751,4,752,4,753,4,754,4,755,5,756,5,757,6,759,4,760,4,761,4,762,4,763,4,764,4,765,10,766,4,767,13,768,4,769,4,770,5,771,4,772,5,774,4,796,4,775,5,776,6,777,4,778,5,780,4,781,4,782,6,783,4,784,5,785,4,786,4,787,4,788,4,790,6,794,4,795,4,1,9,2,4,4,10,3,5,5,5,6,4","sea,126,1,92,1,98,1,115,1,134,1,711,1,722,1,730,1,762,1,781,1,1,1","seagc,91,4","sealing,13,1,92,1,116,1,712,1,763,1","seals,84,1","search,96,8,146,8,742,8,6,8","season,119,1,715,1,766,1","sebalak,8,1,92,1,99,1,100,1,115,1,119,1,124,1,695,1,696,1,711,1,715,1,720,1,747,1,746,1,762,1,766,1,771,1","sebatan,8,1,92,1,99,1,100,1,115,1,119,1,124,1,140,1,695,1,696,1,711,1,715,1,720,1,747,1,736,1,746,1,762,1,766,1,771,1,787,1","sebauh,10,1,92,1,108,1,109,1,110,1,111,1,135,1,131,1,143,1,706,1,707,1,704,1,705,1,727,1,731,1,758,1,739,1,755,1,756,1,757,1,778,1,782,1,790,1","sebubut,9,1,79,1,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,8,105,1,106,1,107,1,117,1,129,1,148,1,149,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,8,701,1,702,1,703,1,713,1,725,1,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,8,752,1,753,1,754,1,764,1,796,1,776,1,795,1","sebuyau,9,1,126,1,92,1,98,1,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,1,116,1,117,1,129,1,148,1,149,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,1,712,1,713,1,725,1,722,1,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,1,763,1,764,1,796,1,776,1,795,1,1,1","second,9,2,82,2,86,2,81,1,83,2,84,4,91,1,92,1,101,2,102,2,103,2,104,2,105,2,106,2,107,2,117,2,129,2,148,2,149,2,697,2,698,2,699,2,700,2,701,2,702,2,703,2,713,2,725,2,744,2,745,2,748,2,749,2,750,2,751,2,752,2,753,2,754,2,764,2,796,2,776,2,795,2","secondary,82,1,92,1,100,1,696,1,747,1","section,7,1,82,2,79,6,84,4,126,1,127,1,133,1,89,7,91,6,92,3,98,1,109,4,121,1,122,2,123,1,125,1,130,1,134,1,135,1,136,1,139,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,147,1,719,1,705,4,717,1,718,2,721,1,722,1,723,1,729,1,730,1,731,1,726,1,732,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,737,1,743,1,756,4,768,1,769,2,770,1,772,1,774,1,777,1,780,1,781,1,782,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,788,1,794,1,1,1","sectional,82,1,89,1","sections,79,3,109,1,705,1,756,1","sector,126,1,133,1,92,2,98,1,722,1,729,1,780,1,1,1","secure,101,1,106,1,697,1,702,1,748,1,753,1","sedc,7,1,127,1,133,1,92,2,121,1,122,1,123,1,125,1,130,1,134,1,136,1,139,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,147,1,719,1,717,1,718,1,721,1,723,1,729,1,730,1,726,1,732,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,737,1,743,1,768,1,769,1,770,1,772,1,774,1,777,1,780,1,781,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,788,1,794,1","sedccarcare,139,4,735,4,786,4","sediment,78,1","sedimentation,92,1,99,1,695,1,746,1","sediments,78,4","seduan,8,1,92,4,99,1,100,1,115,1,119,1,124,1,140,4,695,1,696,1,711,1,715,1,720,1,747,1,736,4,746,1,762,1,766,1,771,1,787,4","see,82,3,86,1,78,1,79,2,81,1,83,1,84,2,88,2,89,1,90,1,91,4","seems,89,1","seen,83,2","seep,79,6,91,11,92,1","seepage,82,2,86,2,79,5,84,7,88,3,89,3,91,14,92,1","seeping,88,1,91,2","segments,91,1","sekabai,10,1,92,1,108,1,109,1,110,1,111,1,135,1,131,1,143,1,706,1,707,1,704,1,705,1,727,1,731,1,758,1,739,1,755,1,756,1,757,1,778,1,782,1,790,1","sekama,8,1,92,1,99,1,100,1,115,1,119,1,124,1,140,1,695,1,696,1,711,1,715,1,720,1,747,1,736,1,746,1,762,1,766,1,771,1,787,1","selalang,10,2,92,3,108,2,109,2,110,2,111,8,135,2,131,2,143,2,706,2,707,8,704,2,705,2,727,2,731,2,758,8,739,2,755,2,756,2,757,2,778,2,782,2,790,2","selatan,92,1","select,94,1,145,1,741,1,5,1","selected,86,1,84,1,87,1,88,1,89,6,90,1,92,1,99,1,695,1,746,1","selection,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,92,1,93,1,142,1,738,1,4,1","sematan,12,2,92,3,114,8,710,8,761,8","semi,92,1","semiconductor,126,1,98,1,125,1,721,1,722,1,772,1,1,1","semirigid,79,1","senari,126,2,92,4,93,2,98,2,118,2,120,5,142,2,714,2,716,5,722,2,738,2,765,2,767,5,1,2,4,2","send,97,1,132,1,728,1,2,1","senior,92,1,130,1,726,1,777,1","sensitivity,84,1","sensors,85,1,87,1","separate,83,1,84,1,89,1,90,1","separated,86,1,126,1,88,1,92,1,98,1,143,1,722,1,739,1,790,1,1,1","separates,83,1,88,1","sept,80,4,81,1","september,94,2,145,2,741,2,5,2","septic,9,1,92,3,101,1,102,2,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,1,117,1,129,1,148,1,149,1,697,1,698,2,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,1,713,1,725,1,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,2,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,1,764,1,796,1,776,1,795,1","septicsludge,102,4,698,4,749,4","sequence,79,1,89,1","sequences,89,9","serian,9,1,92,1,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,1,117,1,129,1,148,1,149,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,1,713,1,725,1,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,1,764,1,796,1,776,1,795,1","series,82,2,78,3,81,1,83,5,84,4,87,3,92,1","seriously,82,1","serve,82,1","service,92,2,113,1,709,1,760,1","serviceability,82,1,85,1,86,2,81,1","services,7,8,8,8,9,8,10,8,11,8,12,8,13,8,126,1,133,1,92,10,93,8,98,1,109,1,139,1,142,8,705,1,722,1,729,1,735,1,738,8,756,1,780,1,786,1,1,1,4,8","servicing,92,1,139,1,735,1,786,1","set,82,4,85,5,86,3,78,2,81,1,84,1,88,2,89,7,90,4","setiaji,89,1","sets,89,3","setting,89,2","settle,85,1,81,1,83,1,84,1","settlem,88,1","settlement,7,1,8,1,9,1,85,4,86,7,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,81,21,83,4,84,5,87,5,88,3,91,2,92,1,93,1,142,1,738,1,4,1","settlements,85,1,86,7,81,1,83,1,84,5,88,5,90,1","settling,84,1","setup,82,1,86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750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,3,764,1,796,1,776,1,795,1","submission,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,92,1,93,1,142,1,738,1,4,1","submitted,83,2,84,2","subpages,20,8","subprofessionals,126,1,98,1,722,1,1,1","subsequent,82,1,83,1,84,1,89,1,91,1","subsequently,82,2,86,6,79,2,84,1,87,3,88,4,89,3,90,1","subsidence,86,1","subsoil,91,1","substantial,82,1,84,2","substantially,82,1,84,1","subsurface,85,2,86,1,81,1,84,4,87,1,89,1,91,1","subway,81,1","success,89,1","successful,79,1","successfully,82,1,85,1,86,1,79,3,84,1,126,1,89,2,90,1,91,5,92,1,98,1,722,1,1,1","successive,84,1","suction,91,1","sudden,86,1,81,1,87,1","suelo,88,3","suffering,126,1,98,1,115,1,711,1,722,1,762,1,1,1","suffers,126,1,98,1,115,1,711,1,722,1,762,1,1,1","sufficiently,84,1","suggest,78,1,81,1","suggested,82,2,84,1,88,1,90,1","suggesting,83,1","suggestions,81,1","suggests,82,1,78,2,83,1,84,1","suitable,82,1,78,1,126,1,98,1,116,1,712,1,722,1,763,1,1,1","suite,92,1","sum,81,1","summarised,82,1","summarized,82,1,84,1","summary,82,1,85,1,81,1,89,1,90,1","sungai,8,1,92,3,99,3,100,1,115,1,119,2,124,1,140,1,695,3,696,1,711,1,715,2,720,1,746,3,747,1,736,1,762,1,766,2,771,1,787,1","sunk,79,1","super,89,2","superior,82,1","superseded,84,1","superstructure,81,1","supervision,7,2,8,2,9,2,10,2,11,2,12,2,13,2,92,2,93,2,142,2,738,2,4,2","supplied,88,1","supply,7,2,8,2,9,13,10,2,11,2,12,2,13,3,79,1,126,3,127,1,133,1,92,17,93,2,98,3,99,2,100,1,101,14,102,12,103,13,104,13,105,13,106,14,107,12,108,1,109,1,110,1,111,1,112,1,113,1,114,1,115,1,116,2,117,12,118,1,119,1,120,1,121,1,122,1,123,1,124,1,125,1,128,1,129,14,130,1,134,1,135,1,136,1,131,1,139,1,140,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,142,2,143,1,147,1,148,12,149,12,709,1,710,1,719,1,695,2,706,1,707,1,708,1,696,1,697,14,698,12,699,13,700,13,701,13,702,14,703,12,704,1,705,1,711,1,712,2,713,12,714,1,715,1,716,1,717,1,718,1,720,1,724,1,721,1,722,3,723,1,726,1,727,1,729,1,730,1,731,1,725,14,746,2,747,1,758,1,732,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,736,1,737,1,738,2,739,1,743,1,744,12,745,12,748,14,749,12,750,13,751,13,752,13,753,14,754,12,755,1,756,1,757,1,759,1,760,1,761,1,762,1,763,2,764,12,765,1,766,1,767,1,768,1,769,1,770,1,771,1,772,1,774,1,796,12,775,1,776,14,777,1,778,1,780,1,781,1,782,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,787,1,788,1,790,1,794,1,795,12,1,3,4,2","support,82,1,86,1,79,10,81,1,88,1,89,1,91,1,94,1,145,1,741,1,5,1","supported,85,1,86,2,81,2,84,1,87,1,92,1,139,1,735,1,786,1","supporting,85,1,86,1,81,1,84,2,126,2,87,1,90,1,92,1,98,2,116,1,120,1,712,1,716,1,722,2,763,1,767,1,1,2","supports,83,1,89,1,92,1,139,1,735,1,786,1","supposed,89,1","supreme,78,2","sur,90,2","surcharge,84,1","surface,82,1,85,9,86,6,81,8,83,8,84,6,88,6,90,2,91,28,92,1","surfaces,79,1,91,4","surprising,81,1,91,1","surrounding,82,1,79,6,84,2,126,1,88,1,89,4,98,1,116,1,124,1,712,1,720,1,722,1,763,1,771,1,1,1","survey,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,126,1,92,1,93,1,98,1,142,1,722,1,738,1,1,1,4,1","susceptibility,91,1","susceptible,79,2,91,1","suspended,78,1,91,11","suspending,91,1","suspension,78,1,91,12","sustain,86,1,91,1","sutherland,78,2","svi,89,5","swelling,85,1,86,1,84,2,88,1","switch,82,1","switching,81,1","swung,82,1,81,1","sydney,91,1","sym,88,1","symbol,85,3,86,1,81,2,87,2,88,1,89,1","symbols,82,1","symmetrical,91,1","symposia,87,1","symposium,86,2,81,2,87,3,94,1,145,1,741,1,5,1","synthetic,78,3","system,85,1,86,1,79,1,81,1,126,3,88,1,89,4,92,3,98,3,100,1,116,1,128,1,696,1,712,1,724,1,722,3,747,1,763,1,775,1,1,3","systems,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,92,1,93,1,142,1,738,1,4,1","table,82,13,85,2,86,6,78,2,79,5,83,1,88,5,89,12,91,7","tables,82,1,86,1,88,1,89,1,91,1","tabuan,7,1,127,1,133,1,92,1,121,1,122,2,123,1,125,1,130,1,134,1,136,1,139,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,147,1,719,1,717,1,718,2,721,1,723,1,726,1,729,1,730,1,732,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,737,1,743,1,768,1,769,2,770,1,772,1,774,1,777,1,780,1,781,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,788,1,794,1","tabulated,82,2,89,1","tackle,92,1","tai,79,1,91,2,94,2,145,2,741,2,5,2","tailored,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,92,1,93,1,142,1,738,1,4,1","taipei,87,1","taiwan,81,1","takada,81,1","take,78,1,81,1,126,1,91,2,98,1,115,1,711,1,722,1,762,1,1,1","takemura,86,1,84,2,88,1","taken,82,2,85,1,86,1,79,1,81,5,83,5,84,9,87,2,88,1,89,1","takes,82,1,84,1,126,1,88,2,98,1,115,1,711,1,722,1,762,1,1,1","taking,81,1,89,1","tan,82,1,86,3,78,1,81,3,84,2,88,1,89,4","tanjung,92,1","tank,126,3,92,3,98,3,103,4,117,1,118,1,120,1,699,4,713,1,714,1,716,1,722,3,750,4,764,1,765,1,767,1,1,3","tanks,126,3,92,3,98,3,118,1,120,2,714,1,716,2,722,3,765,1,767,2,1,3","tap,78,1","target,79,4","task,85,1","tatau,9,1,92,1,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,1,117,1,129,1,148,1,149,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,1,713,1,725,1,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,1,764,1,796,1,776,1,795,1","taylor,85,3,81,3","team,89,1","tebas,7,1,127,1,133,1,92,1,121,1,122,1,123,1,125,1,130,1,134,1,136,1,139,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,147,2,719,1,717,1,718,1,721,1,723,1,726,1,729,1,730,1,732,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,737,1,743,2,768,1,769,1,770,1,772,1,774,1,777,1,780,1,781,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,788,1,794,2","tebelu,9,1,92,1,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,1,117,1,129,1,148,1,149,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,1,713,1,725,1,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,1,764,1,796,1,776,1,795,1","tech,92,1,139,1,735,1,786,1","technical,86,1,79,1,81,1,87,1,92,2,99,1,695,1,746,1","technique,82,1,85,2,79,2,81,6,84,2,89,4","techniques,89,3","technology,82,1,85,2,81,1,90,1","tedious,89,1","teh,84,1","tel,92,1","teluk,9,1,92,1,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,1,117,1,129,1,148,1,149,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,1,713,1,725,1,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,1,764,1,796,1,776,1,795,1","temadak,9,1,92,2,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,6,106,1,107,1,117,1,129,1,148,1,149,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,6,702,1,703,1,713,1,725,1,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,6,753,1,754,1,764,1,796,1,776,1,795,1","temedak,92,1,105,1,701,1,752,1","temporarily,91,1","temporary,89,5","tends,78,1","tension,82,1,85,5,86,8,81,6,83,9,87,6,88,7,90,3","terbang,92,1,95,1,144,1,740,1,3,1","term,85,1,79,3,84,2,126,4,87,1,88,3,89,3,92,3,98,4,100,1,112,1,116,2,128,2,708,1,696,1,712,2,724,2,722,4,747,1,759,1,763,2,775,2,1,4","terminal,126,2,92,3,93,1,98,2,118,1,120,3,142,1,714,1,716,3,722,2,738,1,765,1,767,3,1,2,4,1","terminated,84,2,89,2,91,1","terminates,81,1","terms,86,1,81,1,83,1","terrace,8,1,92,1,99,1,100,1,115,1,119,3,124,1,140,1,695,1,696,1,711,1,715,3,720,1,746,1,747,1,736,1,762,1,766,3,771,1,787,1","test,82,40,85,9,86,39,78,5,79,15,81,26,83,78,84,34,87,21,88,32,89,1,90,23","tested,85,2,86,1,78,1,81,2","testing,82,1,85,1,86,1,78,1,79,2,81,3,84,1,88,1","tests,82,27,85,5,86,15,78,2,79,5,81,11,83,36,84,30,87,9,88,20,90,9","texas,78,1","tg,126,1,92,1,98,1,135,1,722,1,731,1,782,1,1,1","thailand,86,1,81,1,87,1,94,1,145,1,741,1,5,1","thanks,89,1","theoretical,82,2,81,2,83,3,91,1","theoretically,83,1","theory,82,1,89,1","thereafter,82,1,85,2,81,1,83,1,84,1,87,1,88,2","therefore,82,2,85,1,86,4,78,3,79,4,81,1,84,2,126,1,88,4,89,2,91,7,98,1,115,1,711,1,722,1,762,1,1,1","thesis,86,1,84,1,88,1,91,1","thick,82,2,85,2,86,3,79,1,81,1,84,1,87,3,88,1,89,4,90,3,91,1","thickness,82,4,86,3,81,1,84,2,88,4,89,1","third,82,2,81,2,83,1","those,82,4,85,2,86,3,78,3,81,3,83,7,84,3,126,1,88,2,89,2,90,1,92,1,98,1,722,1,1,1","thought,83,1,91,1","threat,86,1","threaten,85,1,79,2","three,82,3,78,1,79,1,81,1,83,8,84,3,126,2,89,3,90,1,98,2,125,2,721,2,722,2,772,2,1,2","threedimensional,83,1","threshold,84,1","through,85,1,86,1,79,1,81,4,83,1,84,4,126,3,87,1,88,2,89,2,91,2,94,1,98,3,110,1,115,1,145,1,706,1,711,1,722,3,741,1,757,1,762,1,1,3,5,1","throughout,82,1,81,1,83,2,84,1,126,1,87,2,92,1,98,1,722,1,1,1","thumb,82,1","thus,82,4,85,4,86,2,79,2,81,4,84,1,87,1,88,5,89,2,91,1,110,1,706,1,757,1","ti,81,1","tide,126,1,98,1,115,1,711,1,722,1,762,1,1,1","tiempo,88,2","tightness,84,1,89,1","till,81,1","tilt,86,1,88,1","tilted,85,1,81,1,83,1","tilts,83,1","time,7,1,8,1,9,1,82,6,85,13,86,17,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,78,1,79,1,81,22,83,11,84,32,126,3,87,7,88,25,89,12,90,1,91,1,92,2,93,1,94,1,98,3,115,1,116,1,142,1,145,1,711,1,712,1,722,3,738,1,741,1,762,1,763,1,1,3,4,1,5,1","timedependent,82,1","times,82,9,79,1,81,4,83,2,84,7,89,2,90,1,91,1","tin,86,1,81,1","ting,86,4,79,2,81,4,91,1,94,2,145,2,741,2,5,2","tingwh,91,1","tintersections,92,1","tion,86,1,81,1,91,1","tip,86,4,81,2","title,87,4","today,92,1","toe,82,2,85,1,86,2,81,2,83,1,84,1,87,3,88,1,89,3,90,2,91,43","together,86,2,81,1,126,1,88,1,89,2,92,1,98,1,128,1,724,1,722,1,775,1,1,1","tokyo,81,1","tolerated,82,1","tombent,90,1","tonnes,126,1,92,1,98,1,118,1,714,1,722,1,765,1,1,1","tons,79,1","too,85,1,79,1,89,1","took,78,2,84,1,91,1","tool,82,1,86,1,79,7,84,1,87,1","top,82,4,86,2,81,6,83,6,84,6,87,3,88,1,91,2,92,1,94,1,122,1,145,1,718,1,741,1,769,1,5,1","topic,94,14,145,14,741,14,5,14","topics,84,1","torque,79,1","total,82,1,85,1,81,1,84,1,86,1,88,2,89,13,90,1,91,1,92,3","totaled,92,1","totaling,133,1,92,1,729,1,780,1","totally,83,3,87,1,89,1","towards,82,1,81,1,83,1,84,1,86,1,88,1,91,3,92,1,140,1,736,1,787,1","tower,81,1,86,1","towers,92,1","town,8,2,126,4,92,7,98,4,99,2,100,3,115,6,119,3,124,2,136,2,140,3,695,2,696,3,711,6,715,3,720,2,722,4,746,2,747,3,732,2,736,3,762,6,766,3,771,2,783,2,787,3,1,4","toyoura,84,2","tpy,126,3,92,3,98,3,118,3,714,3,722,3,765,3,1,3","track,7,1,8,1,9,1,85,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,126,1,92,1,93,1,98,1,125,1,142,1,721,1,722,1,738,1,772,1,1,1,4,1","tracked,86,1","trackway,126,1,92,1,98,1,131,1,722,1,727,1,778,1,1,1","traffic,7,2,8,2,9,2,10,2,11,6,12,2,13,2,126,3,127,1,133,1,91,1,92,13,93,2,98,3,99,1,100,1,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,1,108,1,109,1,110,4,111,1,112,10,113,9,114,1,115,1,116,1,117,1,118,1,119,1,120,1,121,1,122,1,123,1,124,1,125,1,128,6,129,1,130,1,134,1,135,1,136,1,131,1,139,1,140,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,142,2,143,2,147,1,148,1,149,1,709,9,710,1,719,1,695,1,706,4,707,1,708,10,696,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,1,704,1,705,1,711,1,712,1,713,1,714,1,715,1,716,1,717,1,718,1,720,1,724,6,721,1,722,3,723,1,726,1,727,1,729,1,730,1,731,1,725,1,746,1,747,1,758,1,732,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,736,1,737,1,738,2,739,2,743,1,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,1,755,1,756,1,757,4,759,10,760,9,761,1,762,1,763,1,764,1,765,1,766,1,767,1,768,1,769,1,770,1,771,1,772,1,774,1,796,1,775,6,776,1,777,1,778,1,780,1,781,1,782,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,787,1,788,1,790,2,794,1,795,1,1,3,4,2","tragic,82,1","trains,126,1,92,1,98,1,118,1,714,1,722,1,765,1,1,1","transducer,84,2,88,1","transducers,85,3,81,2,84,5,86,3,87,2,88,2,90,2","transfer,81,3,86,1","transferred,91,1","transformation,82,1","transient,79,2,91,5","transit,89,1","translated,84,1","translates,84,1,88,1","translation,83,1","transmission,85,2,81,1,83,2,86,1,87,3,88,1","transmit,85,1,81,1","transmitting,88,1","transparent,84,1","transport,126,1,91,2,98,1,112,2,119,1,708,2,715,1,722,1,759,2,766,1,1,1","transportation,7,2,8,2,9,2,10,2,11,4,12,2,13,2,81,1,83,1,84,1,126,3,127,1,133,1,92,9,93,2,98,3,99,1,100,1,101,1,102,1,103,1,104,1,105,1,106,1,107,1,108,1,109,1,110,1,111,1,112,3,113,3,114,1,115,1,116,1,117,1,118,1,119,1,120,1,121,1,122,1,123,1,124,1,125,1,128,6,129,1,130,1,134,1,135,1,136,1,131,1,139,1,140,1,141,1,137,1,138,1,142,2,143,1,147,1,148,1,149,1,709,3,710,1,719,1,695,1,706,1,707,1,708,3,696,1,697,1,698,1,699,1,700,1,701,1,702,1,703,1,704,1,705,1,711,1,712,1,713,1,714,1,715,1,716,1,717,1,718,1,720,1,724,6,721,1,722,3,723,1,726,1,727,1,729,1,730,1,731,1,725,1,746,1,747,1,758,1,732,1,733,1,734,1,735,1,736,1,737,1,738,2,739,1,743,1,744,1,745,1,748,1,749,1,750,1,751,1,752,1,753,1,754,1,755,1,756,1,757,1,759,3,760,3,761,1,762,1,763,1,764,1,765,1,766,1,767,1,768,1,769,1,770,1,771,1,772,1,774,1,796,1,775,6,776,1,777,1,778,1,780,1,781,1,782,1,783,1,784,1,785,1,786,1,787,1,788,1,790,1,794,1,795,1,1,3,4,2","transported,91,1","transporting,91,3","treated,79,2,104,1,700,1,751,1","treatment,7,2,8,2,9,8,10,2,11,2,12,2,13,2,79,2,126,2,91,1,92,10,93,2,98,2,101,6,102,7,103,6,104,6,105,6,106,7,107,7,117,8,129,6,142,2,148,7,149,7,697,6,698,7,699,6,700,6,701,6,702,7,703,7,713,8,722,2,725,6,738,2,744,7,745,7,748,6,749,7,750,6,751,6,752,6,753,7,754,7,764,8,796,7,776,6,795,7,1,2,4,2","tremendous,81,2,86,1","trench,126,1,98,1,129,1,722,1,725,1,776,1,1,1","trend,78,1,81,1,83,1,84,3,86,1,89,1","trends,81,1,86,1","trial,79,2","triangular,82,2,79,1,84,2,89,6,91,1","triaxial,79,1","tributary,126,1,98,1,129,1,722,1,725,1,776,1,1,1","trough,81,10,83,1,86,2","troughs,85,1,83,1,84,3,87,2","truck,126,1,92,1,98,1,120,1,716,1,722,1,767,1,1,1","true,82,1,89,2","trunk,10,1,126,1,92,4,98,1,100,1,108,1,109,3,110,1,111,3,135,2,131,1,143,1,706,1,707,3,696,1,704,1,705,3,722,1,727,1,731,2,747,1,758,3,739,1,755,1,756,3,757,1,778,1,782,2,790,1,1,1","trusses,92,1,139,1,735,1,786,1","tube,81,1,84,1,86,1,87,1,88,3","tun,119,1,715,1,766,1","tunnel,82,1,81,50,86,36","tunneling,81,8,86,6","tunnelling,81,4","tunnelpile,81,2","tunnels,81,3,89,1","turfed,91,1","turn,82,3,81,1,83,2,86,1,92,1","turnkey,92,1","tw,101,1,697,1,748,1","twice,82,1,85,1,81,1,84,1,126,1,98,1,129,1,722,1,725,1,776,1,1,1","two,82,1,85,2,81,3,83,4,84,8,86,3,126,3,88,4,89,13,90,3,92,3,98,3,103,1,122,1,125,2,129,1,699,1,718,1,721,2,722,3,725,1,750,1,769,1,772,2,776,1,1,3","tyne,78,3","type,82,2,85,1,86,1,89,10,91,2,92,1","types,82,1,78,1,89,4","typical,82,4,81,1,84,3,89,4","typically,79,1,84,1,89,2,91,1","tze,78,1","uk,78,1","ultimate,85,1,86,1,89,1","ulu,10,2,92,2,108,2,109,2,110,2,111,2,135,2,131,2,143,2,706,2,707,2,704,2,705,2,727,2,731,2,758,2,739,2,755,2,756,2,757,2,778,2,782,2,790,2","un,81,1,88,5,90,1","una,88,1","unavailable,84,1,91,2","unbiased,89,3","unchanged,82,1,83,1,89,1","unconfined,79,1,91,2","uncorrected,86,1,90,1","under,82,2,85,1,79,1,81,4,84,3,86,4,88,3,90,2,91,1","underestimate,78,1","underestimates,78,1","undergoing,82,1,86,1","undergone,83,2","underground,81,3,89,2","underlying,85,2,79,1,83,4,84,5,87,1,89,2,90,1","underneath,91,1","underpass,110,1,706,1,757,1","underprediction,83,2","understand,85,1,81,2,86,1,89,2","understanding,82,3,85,2,78,1,79,1,81,2,83,2,86,1,89,2","understood,78,1","understudy,81,1,83,1,86,1","undertaken,7,1,8,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,126,5,127,9,133,9,92,4,93,5,98,1,99,9,100,9,101,9,102,9,103,9,104,9,105,9,106,9,107,9,108,9,109,9,110,9,111,9,112,9,113,9,114,9,115,9,116,9,117,9,118,9,119,9,120,9,121,9,122,9,123,9,124,9,125,9,128,9,129,9,130,9,134,9,135,9,136,9,131,9,139,9,140,9,141,9,137,9,138,9,142,5,143,9,147,9,148,9,149,9,709,9,710,9,719,9,695,9,706,9,707,9,708,9,696,9,697,9,698,9,699,9,700,9,701,9,702,9,703,9,704,9,705,9,711,9,712,9,713,9,714,9,715,9,716,9,717,9,718,9,720,9,724,9,721,9,722,5,723,9,726,9,727,9,729,9,730,9,731,9,725,9,746,9,747,9,758,9,732,9,733,9,734,9,735,9,736,9,737,9,738,5,739,9,743,9,744,9,745,9,748,9,749,9,750,9,751,9,752,9,753,9,754,9,755,9,756,9,757,9,759,9,760,9,761,9,762,9,763,9,764,9,765,9,766,9,767,9,768,9,769,9,770,9,771,9,772,9,774,9,796,9,775,9,776,9,777,9,778,9,780,9,781,9,782,9,783,9,784,9,785,9,786,9,787,9,788,9,790,9,794,9,795,9,1,1,4,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arrFiles=new Array();arrFiles[0]=new Array(1,"http://www.juruterajasa.com/index.html","2007-06-11","Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd - Homepage","jurutera, jasa, consulting, kuching, sarawak, civil, engineers, consultant, engineering, malaysia","","Independent Oil Terminal (IOT) Project at Senari Kuching The Independent Oil Terminal at Senari is meant to replace the Bintawa storage facility with one that is more modern and capable of handling larger capacities for fuel and LPG. The project covers the construction of the following items:- Fuel storage tanks LPG spherical tanks LPG Filling Hall Tank Truck Loading Bay Administrative Buildings Related Buildings and Sheds Supporting civil and structural components Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd is a Malaysian registered Firm of Consultancy Engineers providing a comprehensive range of engineering consultancy services to Government and Private sector clients. The firm specializes in the fields of Civil and Structural Engineering, Oil and Gas, Drainage &amp; Irrigation, Water Supply, Roads and Bridges, Transportation, Traffic and Environmental Planning. Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd was established in 1990 and currently has staff strenght of 65 people consisting of 4 principals, 22 engineers and 26 subprofessionals and 13 administrative staff. Bau Flood Mitigation, Sarawak for D.I.D. Malaysia Bau town is located along the floodplains of the Sg. Sarawak Kanan. The town suffers annual flooding events caused by heavy rainfall falling on the Sg. Sarawak catchment which coincides with King Tide events at the sea. The design concept of the project is to isolate the town against the flooding coming in from Sg. Sarawak Kanan and Sg. Bau by the raised roads and to provide pumped drainage to the compartments when flooding occurs in the regional context. In normal time when no flooding takes place, normal gravity flows through the culverts will take place with no need for pumping. The implementing of the project will protect the town from the flooding up to a 1:100 years flooding event and therefore people will be alleviated from the flood suffering. Sg. Kelalong Dam, Bintulu The proposed dam for the New Bintulu Water Supply, Stage III project is located about 20km north east of Bintulu on a right tributary of the Sg Sibiu. The dam, which has a reservoir capacity of 33,680ML at the full supply level of El 30.0m comprises the following: A main dam approximately 30m high and 460m long, a right bank saddle dam of 19m high and 330m long and a left bank cut-off trench extending 410m beyond the main dam incorporating two low saddle dams; A concrete lined open channel spillway of 25m width in the right bank of the main dam; An outlet works with a peak release capacity of 307 ML/day (with the reservoir at RL 18.0m) and twice this with the reservoir at FSL. Kuala Lumpur Monorail Project Phase 1 of the Kuala Lumpur Monorail Project consists of a 8.6 kilometre elevated trackway costing about Ringgit 1.17 billion. Involved with the planning, alignment design, foundations and civil works. Feasibility Study for the Proposed Slipway, Premises &amp; Loading and Mooring Facilities for Beladin RGC, Betong The objectives of the study are:- To provide a complete facility for the boat building industry and to ensure that the facilities provided will play an important part in the development of the boat building and repair industry in Beladin and the surrounding region of Pusa, Sebuyau and Kabong. The facilities include a boat slipway system capable of winching boats of various sizes up to maximum size of 200 GRT. Upland Gyratory Flyover Project, Kuching. Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd undertook the traffic study and the functional design of the Upland Gyratory Flyover Project. The project entails the conversion of an at-grade gyratory to a grade separated Interchange while retaining the existing gyratory operation below. Kuching Public Transport Study The purpose of undertaking this study was to prepare a Long Term Masterplan together with Short and Medium Term Plans for improving and developing public transportation, as well as the overall urban transportation system and traffic conditions in Kuching. Biodiesel Plant, Bintulu for PME Biofuels (M) Sdn Bhd The proposed Biodiesel Plant has a production capacity of 500,000 tonnes per year. The full capability of the plant will be initiated in various phases. Phase 1 consists of building all the infrastructure, buildings, tank farm and a process plant capable of generating 200,000 tpy. Phase 2 and 3 will involve building additional process trains and tanks for generating 100,000 tpy and 200,000 tpy respectively. 1st Silicon Wafer Fab Project, Kuching This is the first wafer fabrication plant ever built in Malaysia. It is a semiconductor manufacturing facility capable of producing 20,000 wafers per month. The works were to be executed on a fast track basis. The estimated cost for the whole project is USD 951 million. There are three phases planned for this site which covers about 97 acres of land in the Sama Jaya Free Industrial Zone, Kuching, Sarawak. The current phase consists of a four storey FAB building, a two storey CUB-ANNEX, a two storey CUB building, a three storey Administration building and the civil works around these buildings. Bintulu Water Treatment Plant Phase III This 100 Mld treatment plant expansion entails the construction of a river intake, a raw water reservoir intake, a DAF/Filter combined process unit, chemical house, pump house, clear water tank and elevated R.C. balancing reservoir. Miri - Bintulu Coastal Road The overall project consists of 175 km of coastal road from Bintulu to Miri. Section A1 consists of 40 km of road from Tg. Kidurong to Similajau Junction. The road is designed to JKR R5 trunk road standard with 7.0 mm carriageway width and 3.0 m shoulder on both sides. The Firm \'s Corporate Mission We are a group of people dedicated to the creative design and wholesome planning of engineering works, and to ensure that they are built based on sound engineering principles and wise use of resources to benefit the community. We will strive to bea valued contributor to the role of humankind as the good steward of the earth through engineering projects that we plan, design and build. We will achieve this through the hiring of people willing to dedicate their time and effort to this cause and providing an equitable and fair reward system and a nurturing working environment for our people \'s growth, both in competency and character. Jabatan Kerja Raya Drainage &amp; Irrigation Department Land &amp; Custody Development Authority Land &amp; Survey Department Kuching Water Board I.E.M / A.C.E.M / B.E.M Feasibility Study for the Proposed Slipway, Premises &amp; Loading and Mooring Facilities for Belading RGC, Betong The objectives of the study are:- To provide safe mooring facilities that can accommodate 50 fishing vessels at any one time To consider other facilities like fueling station, ice-making plant, supporting industries, etc; and Formulation of a master plan for long term planning purposes and a short-term action plan suitable for immediate implementation. Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd has successfully completed many projects throughout Malaysia and the Project Highlights depicts some illustrations of those projects. More projects are listed in the Project Undertaken page indicating the breadth of the Firm&rsquo;s experience and capabilities.",45);arrFiles[1]=new Array(2,"http://www.juruterajasa.com/career.html","2007-03-06","Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd - Resources","jurutera, jasa, consulting, kuching, sarawak, civil, engineers, consultant, engineering, malaysia","","There are no Current Openings posted at the moment For more information, please Contact Us on T - +6082 463 888 or send us an E-mail: jasamail@juruterajasa.com Post Vacant: Date Posted: Job Requirements: Job Description:",14);arrFiles[2]=new Array(3,"http://www.juruterajasa.com/contactus.html","2007-03-06","Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd - Contact Us","","","JURUTERA JASA (SARAWAK) SDN BHD CONSULTING ENGINEERS (206557-V) No. 127, 1st floor, Green Heights Commercial Centre Jalan Lapangan Terbang, 93250 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia. P. O. Box 2357, 93748 Kuching Sarawak, Malaysia T: 6082 463 888 F: 6082 463 222 E: jasamail@juruterajasa.com Your e-mail address: Subject: Message:",5);arrFiles[3]=new Array(4,"http://www.juruterajasa.com/project_undertaken.html","2007-06-11","Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd - Skills &amp; Services","jurutera, jasa, consulting, kuching, sarawak, civil, engineers, consultant, engineering, malaysia","","RANGE OF ENGINEERING CONSULTANCY EXPERTISE Roads, Highways and Expressways Bridges and Elevated Track-ways Transportation Planning Traffic Engineering Civil and Structural Engineering Water Treatment Plants Dam Engineering Water Resources Development Water Supply Reticulation Systems Ports, Harbours and Jetties Coastal and River Engineering Sewage Treatment, Reticulation and Disposal Airports Drainage and Irrigation Environmental Impact Studies Oil &amp; Gas RANGE OF SERVICES Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd is capable of providing full consultancy services for a project from inception to completion. The services can however be tailored to meet the client&rsquo;s requirements. The range of services offered by Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd includes:- Project Conception and Consultation Feasibility Studies Investigation Survey and Selection Liaison with Government Authorities Detailed Engineering Analysis and Design Contract Plans and Documentation Material and Construction Specification Estimating and Budgetary Control Field Inspection and Supervision Project Management and Full Time Construction Supervision Submission and Obtaining Government Approvals and Certificates Settlement of Contractual Claims and Disputes LIST OF PROJECT UNDERTAKEN Oil &amp; Gas Independent Oil Terminal (IOT) Project at Senari, Kuching for EPCC Contractor &ndash; PPES Works (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd for ASSAR Senari Holdings Sdn Bhd . Oil Palm Refinery Project at Bintulu for Kirana Oil Palm Sdn Bhd Biodiesel Plant, Bintulu for PME Biofuels (M) Sdn Bhd Front End Engineering Design (FEED) Studies for proposed Bintulu Oil Receiving Facility (BORF) at Bintulu for MMC/Murphy Oil (Sarawak) Corporation. Oil and Gas Building Works Drainage and Irrigation Water Supply Roads and Bridges Traffic and Transportation Wharf and Jetty Miscellaneous",18);arrFiles[4]=new Array(5,"http://www.juruterajasa.com/resources.html","2007-03-06","Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd - Resources","jurutera, jasa, consulting, kuching, sarawak, civil, engineers, consultant, engineering, malaysia","","An Experimental Study Of Local Scour Around Circular Bridges Piers In Cohesive Soils [ view ] 2nd International Scour Conference Role of Centrifuge Modelling in Advancing Geotechnical Engineering - By Dominic E.L. Ong [ view ] Borneo Post, 1st September 2006 The Role of Physical Modelling to Study Geotechnical Failures - By Dominic E.L. Ong [ view ] 3rd International Young Geotechnical Engineer Conference, 12 - 16 September 2005, Osaka, Japan. Effect of Horizontal Limiting Soil Pressures on Pile Behaviour [ view ] Dominic E.L. Ong, C.F. Leung &amp; Y.K. Chow and D.Q. Yang Pile Behavior Due to Excavation - Induced Soil Movement in Clay. II: Collapsed Wall [ view ] C.F. Leung, Dominic E.L. Ong and Y.K. Chow Pile Behavior Due to Excavation - Induced Soil Movement in Clay. I: Stable Wall [ view ] Dominic E.L. Ong, C.E. Leung and Y.K. Chow Pile Behaviour Behind A Failed Excavation - By Dominic E.L. Ong, C.F. Leung and Y.K. Chow [ view ] International Conference on Structural and Foundation Failures, August 2 - 4, 2004, Singapore Study of Geotechnical Failures through Physical Modeling [ view ] C.F. Leung, Dominic E.L. Ong &amp; Y.K. Chow Centrifuge Modelling of Pile Performance Behind a Failed Excavation in Clay - By C.F. Leung, Dominic E.L. Ong and Y.K. Chow [ view ] The 17th KKCNN Symposium on Civil Engineering, December 13 - 15, 2004, Thailand Time-dependent Pile Behavior Due to Excavation-Induced Soil Movement in Clay [ view ] Dominic E.L. Ong, C.F. Leung and Y.K. Leung Comparisons of Finite Element Modelling of a Deep Excavation using SAGE-CRISP and PLAXIS [ view ] Dominic E.L. Ong, D.Q. Yang and S.K. Phang Piles Subject to Excavation-induced Soil Movement in Clay [ view ] Dominic .E.L. Ong, C.F. Leung &amp; Y.K. Chow Construction of a 12m High Embankment in Hydraulic Sand Fill [ view ] W.H. Ting, Dominic E.L. Ong, L.Y. Tai and A.T.C. Wong Support Of Raised Embankment Of a Small Dam by Cement Columns [ view ] Ting Wen Hui, Kenny Yee, Tai Lee Yoon and Dominic E.L. Ong Topic: Released By: Topic: Released By: Topic: Released By: Topic: Released By: Topic: Released By: Topic: Released By: Topic: Released By: Topic: Released By: Topic: Released By: Topic: Released By: Topic: Released By: Topic: Released By: Topic: Released By: Topic: Released By: PUBLISHED PAPERS back to top ... There are no Presentations posted at the moment Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd Company Brochure. [ view ] or mouse Right click and select save option to download.",18);arrFiles[5]=new Array(6,"http://www.juruterajasa.com/search.html","2007-06-12","Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd - Site Search","","","",1);arrFiles[6]=new Array(7,"http://www.juruterajasa.com/project_undertakena.html","2007-06-11","Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd - Skills &amp; Services","jurutera, jasa, consulting, kuching, sarawak, civil, engineers, consultant, engineering, malaysia","","RANGE OF ENGINEERING CONSULTANCY EXPERTISE Roads, Highways and Expressways Bridges and Elevated Track-ways Transportation Planning Traffic Engineering Civil and Structural Engineering Water Treatment Plants Dam Engineering Water Resources Development Water Supply Reticulation Systems Ports, Harbours and Jetties Coastal and River Engineering Sewage Treatment, Reticulation and Disposal Airports Drainage and Irrigation Environmental Impact Studies Oil &amp; Gas RANGE OF SERVICES Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd is capable of providing full consultancy services for a project from inception to completion. The services can however be tailored to meet the client&rsquo;s requirements. The range of services offered by Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd includes:- Project Conception and Consultation Feasibility Studies Investigation Survey and Selection Liaison with Government Authorities Detailed Engineering Analysis and Design Contract Plans and Documentation Material and Construction Specification Estimating and Budgetary Control Field Inspection and Supervision Project Management and Full Time Construction Supervision Submission and Obtaining Government Approvals and Certificates Settlement of Contractual Claims and Disputes LIST OF PROJECT UNDERTAKEN Building Works 1st Silicon Wafer Fab Project, Kuching Kuala Baram Port Project for Miri Port Authority. Lok Kawi Beach Resort and Mixed Development Proposed Government Office Complex at Mukah. Extension of Sarawak State Mosque Project. Proposed Development of Regional Office for DID, Kota Samarahan. Proposed Mukah Boulevard and Mosque Bulk Gas Plant at Samajaya Free Industrial Zone, Kuching. KTS Regional Office, a 12-storey Building Complex Housing Administrative Office, Commercial Podium And Hotel. Matu Community Hall Building Works Oil and Gas Drainage and Irrigation Water Supply Roads and Bridges Traffic and Transportation Wharf and Jetty Miscellaneous Building Works Car-Care Center for SEDC, Kuching New Batu Lintang Market, Kuching Proposed New 8-Storeys Federal Complex Building Sibu for JKR Sarawak Proposed 4-Storey Residential Flat Development on Lot 222 &amp; 223, Block 10, KLCD, Off Jalan Keretapi, Kuching. Proposed Badminton Hall for Badminton Association of Sarawak. Esso Petrol Filling Stations, Kuching. Renovation of Council Negeri Building. Wang Ming Church, Sibu. Museum Bandstand, Kuching. Proposed Development on Lot 247, (Partial), Block 5, Kuala Baram Land District, Lutong, Miri, Sarawak. Proposed Condominium Development at Lot 32, Section 46, KTLD, Tabuan Road, Kuching. Wong Nai Siong Square, Sibu Building Works Sinar Mekar&rsquo;s Office and Warehouse, Muara Tebas Land District, Kuching Galeria, Langkawi Cabinet House, Langkawi",24);arrFiles[7]=new Array(8,"http://www.juruterajasa.com/project_undertakenb.html","2007-06-11","Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd - Skills &amp; Services","jurutera, jasa, consulting, kuching, sarawak, civil, engineers, consultant, engineering, malaysia","","RANGE OF ENGINEERING CONSULTANCY EXPERTISE Roads, Highways and Expressways Bridges and Elevated Track-ways Transportation Planning Traffic Engineering Civil and Structural Engineering Water Treatment Plants Dam Engineering Water Resources Development Water Supply Reticulation Systems Ports, Harbours and Jetties Coastal and River Engineering Sewage Treatment, Reticulation and Disposal Airports Drainage and Irrigation Environmental Impact Studies Oil &amp; Gas RANGE OF SERVICES Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd is capable of providing full consultancy services for a project from inception to completion. The services can however be tailored to meet the client&rsquo;s requirements. The range of services offered by Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd includes:- Project Conception and Consultation Feasibility Studies Investigation Survey and Selection Liaison with Government Authorities Detailed Engineering Analysis and Design Contract Plans and Documentation Material and Construction Specification Estimating and Budgetary Control Field Inspection and Supervision Project Management and Full Time Construction Supervision Submission and Obtaining Government Approvals and Certificates Settlement of Contractual Claims and Disputes LIST OF PROJECT UNDERTAKEN Drainage &amp; Irrigation Bau Flood Mitigation, Sarawak for DID Malaysia. River Improvement Works for Sg. Maong, Sg. Sekama and Sg. Sinjan for DID Sarawak. Sg. Seduan River Improvement Works, Sibu, Sarawak for DID Malaysia. Sibu Town Drainage Improvement Works, Phase II, Sibu, for DID Sarawak. Drainage and Flood Protection for Agricultural Development at Pulau Bruit, Sarawak for DID Malaysia. Loba Lembangan River Improvement Works, Sibu, Sarawak for DID Sarawak. Sebatan Drainage Scheme (Block II) Kalaka, Sri Aman Division for DID Sarawak. Sg. Ensurai Controlled Drainage Scheme, Sri Aman for DID Sarawak. Kelulit Drainage Scheme, Sg. Sibuti, Bekenu, Miri Division for DID Sarawak. Drainage and Irrigation Building Works Oil and Gas Water Supply Roads and Bridges Traffic and Transportation Wharf and Jetty Miscellaneous Drainage &amp; Irrigation Drainage Improvement Works for Bong Chin Terrace and Sungai Maong Hilir, Kuching, Sarawak for DID Sarawak Sg. Sarawak Flood Mitigation Options Study for DID Malaysia. Sibu Town Urban Drainage Masterplan Study for DID Malaysia. Study for the Sg. Sebalak Padi Irrigation Scheme, Sri Aman, Sarawak for DID Sarawak. Study for Flood Mitigation for Batu Kitang and Batu Kawa for DID Malaysia.",21);arrFiles[8]=new Array(9,"http://www.juruterajasa.com/project_undertakenc.html","2007-06-11","Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd - Skills &amp; Services","jurutera, jasa, consulting, kuching, sarawak, civil, engineers, consultant, engineering, malaysia","","RANGE OF ENGINEERING CONSULTANCY EXPERTISE Roads, Highways and Expressways Bridges and Elevated Track-ways Transportation Planning Traffic Engineering Civil and Structural Engineering Water Treatment Plants Dam Engineering Water Resources Development Water Supply Reticulation Systems Ports, Harbours and Jetties Coastal and River Engineering Sewage Treatment, Reticulation and Disposal Airports Drainage and Irrigation Environmental Impact Studies Oil &amp; Gas RANGE OF SERVICES Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd is capable of providing full consultancy services for a project from inception to completion. The services can however be tailored to meet the client&rsquo;s requirements. The range of services offered by Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd includes:- Project Conception and Consultation Feasibility Studies Investigation Survey and Selection Liaison with Government Authorities Detailed Engineering Analysis and Design Contract Plans and Documentation Material and Construction Specification Estimating and Budgetary Control Field Inspection and Supervision Project Management and Full Time Construction Supervision Submission and Obtaining Government Approvals and Certificates Settlement of Contractual Claims and Disputes LIST OF PROJECT UNDERTAKEN Water Supply Sg. Kelalong Dam, Bintulu. Bintulu Water Treatment Plant Phase III. Batu Kitang (Module 7) Water Treatment Plant . Gerugu Dam, Sarikei. Water Supply to Santubong/Teluk Bandung, Kuching. Proposed Septic Sludge Treatment Facility in Matang, Kuching. Limbang Water Treatment Plant, Limbang. Sebuyau Water Supply, Kuching. 2 x 4.5 Ml Elevated Reservoirs at Samajaya, Kuching. Second Raw Water Intake of Salim Water Treatment Plant, Sibu Salim Water Treatment Plant Phase 2, Stage 2, Sibu Water Supply Building Works Oil and Gas Drainage and Irrigation Roads and Bridges Traffic and Transportation Wharf and Jetty Miscellaneous Water Supply Proposed 900mm/700mm dia. steel pipeline from Jalan Airport / Jalan Stutong Junction to Samajaya. Raising of Sebubut dam, Matang, Kuching for Kuching Water Board. Rubber Dam on Sg. Temadak, Bintagor. Tatau Water Supply Phase II, Bintulu Division for JKR Sarawak. Tebelu Water Supply. Water Supply to Areas between Mile 33 to Mile 37, Kuching -Serian Road. Second Miri Water Supply Master Plan Study. Kuching Water Supply Master Plan Study. Limbang Water Supply Master Plan Study. Feasibility Study for the Sg. Kelalong Dam, Bintulu Water Supply Feasibility Study for the Proposed Bengoh Dam on Sg. Sarawak Kiri, Kuching. Feasibility Study for a multi-purpose Dam on Sg. Sarawak Kiri for Kuching Water Board. Hydrological Study for the Sg. Sarawak Kiri Catchment and Feasibility Study of a Proposed Submersible Weir across Sg. Sarawak Kiri.",22);arrFiles[9]=new Array(10,"http://www.juruterajasa.com/project_undertakend.html","2007-06-11","Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd - Skills &amp; Services","jurutera, jasa, consulting, kuching, sarawak, civil, engineers, consultant, engineering, malaysia","","RANGE OF ENGINEERING CONSULTANCY EXPERTISE Roads, Highways and Expressways Bridges and Elevated Track-ways Transportation Planning Traffic Engineering Civil and Structural Engineering Water Treatment Plants Dam Engineering Water Resources Development Water Supply Reticulation Systems Ports, Harbours and Jetties Coastal and River Engineering Sewage Treatment, Reticulation and Disposal Airports Drainage and Irrigation Environmental Impact Studies Oil &amp; Gas RANGE OF SERVICES Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd is capable of providing full consultancy services for a project from inception to completion. The services can however be tailored to meet the client&rsquo;s requirements. The range of services offered by Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd includes:- Project Conception and Consultation Feasibility Studies Investigation Survey and Selection Liaison with Government Authorities Detailed Engineering Analysis and Design Contract Plans and Documentation Material and Construction Specification Estimating and Budgetary Control Field Inspection and Supervision Project Management and Full Time Construction Supervision Submission and Obtaining Government Approvals and Certificates Settlement of Contractual Claims and Disputes LIST OF PROJECT UNDERTAKEN Roads &amp; Bridges Kuala Lumpur Monorail Project Miri-Bintulu Coastal Road. Design, Construction, Completion and Maintenance of Matu-Igan Coastal Road, Sarikei Division. Batang Igan Bridge &amp; Access Road, Sibu. Sg. Bidut Road, Sibu. Upgrading of Betong-Kayu Malam Road, Sri Aman Division. Upgrading of 3rd Mile Interchange, Kuching. Upland Gyratory Flyover Project, Kuching Ulu Sebauh/Ulu Sekabai Road, Bintulu. Upgrading of Borneo Highland Road, Kuching. Improvement of 1st Trunk Road: Selalang Junction to Sri Aman &ndash; Sarikei Boarder. Upgrading of Kpg. Staang Road, Kuching. Improvement and widening of Batu Lintang Road (Phase II), Kuching. Roads and Bridges Drainage and Irrigation Building Works Oil and Gas Water Supply Traffic and Transportation Wharf and Jetty Miscellaneous Roads &amp; Bridges Improvement and beautification of Jalan Padungan, Kuching. Design Optimisation of the Proposed Grigat to Selalang Road for John Holland (Malaysia) Sdn Bhd, Sarikei. Sg. Lundu Bridge, Bau-Lundu Road.",21);arrFiles[10]=new Array(11,"http://www.juruterajasa.com/project_undertakene.html","2007-06-11","Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd - Skills &amp; Services","jurutera, jasa, consulting, kuching, sarawak, civil, engineers, consultant, engineering, malaysia","","RANGE OF ENGINEERING CONSULTANCY EXPERTISE Roads, Highways and Expressways Bridges and Elevated Track-ways Transportation Planning Traffic Engineering Civil and Structural Engineering Water Treatment Plants Dam Engineering Water Resources Development Water Supply Reticulation Systems Ports, Harbours and Jetties Coastal and River Engineering Sewage Treatment, Reticulation and Disposal Airports Drainage and Irrigation Environmental Impact Studies Oil &amp; Gas RANGE OF SERVICES Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd is capable of providing full consultancy services for a project from inception to completion. The services can however be tailored to meet the client&rsquo;s requirements. The range of services offered by Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd includes:- Project Conception and Consultation Feasibility Studies Investigation Survey and Selection Liaison with Government Authorities Detailed Engineering Analysis and Design Contract Plans and Documentation Material and Construction Specification Estimating and Budgetary Control Field Inspection and Supervision Project Management and Full Time Construction Supervision Submission and Obtaining Government Approvals and Certificates Settlement of Contractual Claims and Disputes LIST OF PROJECT UNDERTAKEN Traffic &amp; Transportation Kuching Public Transportation Study. Miri Traffic Study. Feasibility Study on Improvement of Pujut and Puchong intersections, Miri Traffic Improvement Works at Wisma Saberkas. Traffic Signal-Controlled Junction at Medan Jaya roundabout, Bintulu. Traffic and Transportation Oil and Gas Building Works Drainage and Irrigation Water Supply Roads and Bridges Wharf and Jetty Miscellaneous",18);arrFiles[11]=new Array(12,"http://www.juruterajasa.com/project_undertakenf.html","2007-06-11","Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd - Skills &amp; Services","jurutera, jasa, consulting, kuching, sarawak, civil, engineers, consultant, engineering, malaysia","","RANGE OF ENGINEERING CONSULTANCY EXPERTISE Roads, Highways and Expressways Bridges and Elevated Track-ways Transportation Planning Traffic Engineering Civil and Structural Engineering Water Treatment Plants Dam Engineering Water Resources Development Water Supply Reticulation Systems Ports, Harbours and Jetties Coastal and River Engineering Sewage Treatment, Reticulation and Disposal Airports Drainage and Irrigation Environmental Impact Studies Oil &amp; Gas RANGE OF SERVICES Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd is capable of providing full consultancy services for a project from inception to completion. The services can however be tailored to meet the client&rsquo;s requirements. The range of services offered by Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd includes:- Project Conception and Consultation Feasibility Studies Investigation Survey and Selection Liaison with Government Authorities Detailed Engineering Analysis and Design Contract Plans and Documentation Material and Construction Specification Estimating and Budgetary Control Field Inspection and Supervision Project Management and Full Time Construction Supervision Submission and Obtaining Government Approvals and Certificates Settlement of Contractual Claims and Disputes LIST OF PROJECT UNDERTAKEN Wharf &amp; Jetty R.C. Wharf at Kpg. Rambungan, Kuching for JKR Sarawak. Proposed R.C Jetty, Sematan and Riverwall, Sematan, Kuching. Investigation and Design of Proposed Riverwall, Lawas, Limbang Division. Proposed Construction &amp; Completion of the R.C. 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UK..  An experimental investigation of local scour around circular bridge piers in soils of cohesive/noncohesive mixtures is presented. Synthetic soils of different clay content, prepared by mixing Kaoline with sand at optimum moisture content to achieve maximum dry density, were tested. Pier Reynolds Number and clay content were found to have a significant effect on the development of the scour hole. An empirical equation was developed to predict the equilibrium scour depth. A comparison between the predicted equilibrium scour depth and existing equations reveals that these equations underestimate the equilibrium scour depth in cohesive soils at higher flow velocities. The side slope of the scour hole was also found to increase with the increase of clay content.  1  Introduction  Pier scour is the greatest single cause of bridge failures. With the prospect of more severe and more frequent floods due to climate change, reducing the risk of bridge failure is becoming increasingly important. Bridge pier scour in sand and gravel river beds is relatively well understood. However, very few studies have been carried out on the scouring of cohesive soil. The scour of cohesive materials is fundamentally different from that of non-cohesive materials. The erosion of non-cohesive sediments depends on factors such as the grain size distribution, the shape and the density of individual grains. The resistance of cohesive sediments to erosion is related to electrochemical bonding between individual particles. Natural sediments rarely consist of only sand or mud. Many alluvial channels are made up of a mixture of cohesive and non-cohesive soils. Since many structures are founded on cohesive materials, there is a need to improve our understanding of their behaviour. In order to clarify the effect of cohesive material on local scour, a series of experiments was carried out on circular piers in synthetic soils with various proportions of clay content, C, in which the depth of scour, ds, was monitored as the scour hole developed. The dimensions of the scour hole, that is side slope, Z, and width, W, were measured at the end of the test. It took several days for these tests to reach their equilibrium scour depth, dse. Therefore, a hyperbolic function shape model, as explained by Gudavalli (1997), was used to extrapolate the measurements to predict the equilibrium scour depth. This predicted equilibrium scour depth was used in this study.  1    2 2 Experimental Set Up And Procedure  The experiments were carried out in a recirculating metal flume located in the Fluid Dynamics Laboratory of the school of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, University of Newcastle upon Tyne. This flume is 6m long, 0.6m wide and 0.45m deep. A false bottom made of plywood was installed 0.15m above the original flume bed to create a recess for the soil bed. The slope of the false bed was 0.001m/m. Soil samples with clay content 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40 & 50% by dry weight were mixed with sand and tap water. The silt content of the material is equal to the clay content in this project, e.g. 30% clay content soil would have 30% silt size material and 40% sand. Both clay and silt are cohesive material. Therefore, by testing clay samples in the range of 0-50% clay content, this covered soils from 0% (sand) to 100% cohesive material (50% clay and 50% silt). The experiments were conducted by using three types of soils: synthetic Supreme Kaoline, Grade E Kaoline and sand. Kaoline was used to ensure that the soil parameters were well controlled. Supreme Kaoline is mostly made up of clay size particles (<0.002mm) and Grade E Kaoline is mostly made up of silt size particles (0.002mm<d<0.06mm). The very fine silica sand (non-cohesive component) used in this series of experiments had a mean diameter, d50, of 0.14mm. The soil properties of each mixture, i.e. plastic index, optimum moisture content, shear strength and permeability were investigated. Soil samples were prepared to the optimum moisture content and compacted to the maximum dry density in the flume. Circular piers of 25mm and 50mm diameter, b, were placed in the soils. Soil density and strength were obtained before each test. Various flow velocities, U, in the range of 0.26 m/s to 0.52 m/s were established in the flume. Flow velocities higher than 0.6m/s were found to be unrealistically erosive. Water flow depth, yo, was set to 150mm in most experiments so that the influence of water depth on scouring may be neglected. Melville and Sutherland (1988), Ettema (1980), Chiew & Melville (1987) and Sheppard (1999) have shown that water depth has a negligible effect on scour when yo/b reaches 2.5-3.0. All experiments had live bed scour conditions. The minimum flow velocity was higher than the critical mobility velocity of the sand (0.22m/s from Neill (1968)). The eroded clay material was in suspension. Owing to the different clay contents and flow velocities involved in each run, the test duration, t, varied from a few hours in sand to 59 hours for the 50% clay content soil bed. The experimental data are shown in Table 1. Based on the flow velocities, the experiments were divided into four Series: A, B, C and D. 3 Analysis Of Experimental Data  The initial scour occurred in either the wake, or at the sides of the pier and then migrated to the upstream edge of the pier. With lower clay content scouring started very quickly, whereas it took much longer for this to initiate with highly cohesive material.    3 Table 1. Experimental Data  Exp no. A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 D1 D2 D3 C (%) 50 40 30 20 20 15 10 5 0 0 0 20 15 10 5 0 10 50 40 30 20 15 10 5 30 30 50 40 30 b (mm) 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 25 50 50 50 50 50 25 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 25 50 50 50 ys (mm) 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 161 161 161 161 161 161 161 161 161 205 205 205 Q (l/s) 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 31 31 31 31 31 31 39.5 39.5 39.5 39.5 39.5 39.5 39.5 39.5 39.5 67.8 67.8 67.8 U (m/s) 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.34 0.34 0.34 0.34 0.34 0.34 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.52 0.52 0.52 t (hour) 59 38.5 20 50 23 20 46 23 11 9 6 43 11 16 12 5.5 6.3 37 27.5 30 7.7 6 12 6 22 14 3.5 3 3.5 ds (mm) 0 0 0 0 0 0 75 76 73 73 34 86 85 96 94 81 51 113 118 111 96 92 106 98 112 51 130 115 131 d se (mm) 78 77 75 76 34 89 87 99 94 83 52 132 127 113 99 94 108 100 114 55 185 159 151  The maximum scour depth was found upstream of the pier in all experiments at the end of the test. However, in soils with clay content at or above 20%, the scour depth on both sides and in the wake of the pier was found to be about the same as the maximum scour depth. The scoured sand in the soil mixtures deposited downstream and formed a bar, while the clay particles were suspended during the scouring process. Fig. 1 shows that the equilibrium scour depth, dse, correlates very well with Pier Reynolds Number, Rep. This finding agrees with Guvadalli (1997). A regression relationship between dse and Rep was developed: dse=0.0044Rep1.0234 (1)  As most of the soil properties (plastic index, optimum moisture content, shear strength and permeability) depend on the proportion of clay, the clay content was chosen as the    4  Figure 1. The regression between dse and Rep  Figure 2. Scour ratio vs clay content    5 most representative parameter in this project. Scour ratio, dse/b, and clay content correlate well (see Fig.2). The scour ratio increases with increasing quantities of clay in the soil. The scour depth is greater in soils with higher clay content because the lattice structure of the clay expands and the bonds between the clay particles break down with time in the presence of water, causing dispersion. Hence the clay material tends to be eroded more easily by even very low velocities. The linear regression equation from Fig.2 is: dse/b=0.0314C+1.5265 (2)  By combining both the effect of Pier Reynolds Number and clay content, an empirical equation was developed to predict the equilibrium scour depth in cohesive/non-cohesive mixtures: dse=0.0044Rep1.0234 (1+C/100)0.5 (3)  Fig.3 shows the relationship between the dse calculated by Eq. (3) and the hyperbolic model predicted value. The comparison is satisfactory. Eq. 3 underestimates the equilibrium scour depth by a maximum of 8%. The equation developed in this project is compared to those developed by Gudavalli (1997), Hosny (1995), Shen (1969) and Richardson and Davis (CSU) (1995). The comparisons (Fig.4) show the same trend for the Gudavalli, Shen and CSU equations. However, the equilibrium scour depth obtained by Eq. 3 is smaller at low velocities and larger at high velocities when compared to these equations. The equilibrium scour depth from Eq. 3 is dramatically different from the Hosny prediction. The Gudavalli equation was developed mainly from clay material. However, it does not take into account the soil properties. Only Pier Reynolds Number is considered. It is impractical to neglect the soil properties in scour prediction in cohesive material as scouring of cohesive sediments involves the chemical and physical bonds of the individual particles. The Shen and CSU equations show very similar results, even although the Shen equation is a function of Reynolds Number and the CSU equation is a function of Froude Number. It is noted that both equations are developed from non-cohesive soils and Fig.4 suggests that it is not suitable for scour depth prediction of cohesive material, especially at high velocities. The values of scour depth predicted by the Shen and CSU equations are smaller than those predicted by Eq. 3 at high velocities. This is probably due to the refilling of the scour hole by sand during the live bed scouring. Some non-cohesive scour depth prediction equations suggest that the maximum scour depth is only equal to 2.4b (Raudkivi and Ettema (1983), May and Willoughby (1990)). Hosny also investigated the scour in the soil of cohesive and non-cohesive mixtures. However, his equation shows very different results from Eq. 3. A reason may be that the definition of clay content is different from this project. Hosny defined the clay content as the amount of cohesive soil by dry weight in the soil mixtures. The cohesive soil used was made up of 24% sand, 44% silt and only 32% of clay. However, the clay content defined in this study is the amount of clay size material by dry weight in the soil mixtures. The maximum clay content that Hosny investigated was 40% (only 12.8% clay content by the definition of this project). Hosny concluded that scour depth decreases with the increase of clay content, which is contrary to the findings of this project.    6  Figure 3. Comparison of dse by equation 3 and dse by hyperbolic model  Figure 4. Comparison of equilibrium scour depth After the test, the side slope, Z, and Width, W, of the scour hole upstream of the pier were measured. This slope is plotted against clay content in Fig. 5. The plot suggests that    7 the slope angle increases with the increasing quantity of clay content. The result is consistent with the finding of Hosny (1995). A regression line (R2 =0.95) was fitted to the data and the regression equation obtained is: Z=0.3205C+30.84 (4)  The width of the scour hole, W measured from the edge of the pier to the edge of the scour hole can be estimated by: W=ds/tan(Z) (5)  As the slope is steeper in soil with higher clay content, the width of the scour hole is smaller. It was also observed that the volume of scour hole upstream of the pier decreased with the increase in clay content. Therefore the flow velocity in the scour hole of soil with higher clay content is expected to be higher as the flow is more contained and a deeper scour hole is created.  Figure 5. Slope v clay content 4 Conclusions 1. 2. The wake vortex was found to have a more significant effect in initiating scour in cohesive materials. Maximum scour depth was observed to occur at the upstream of the pier in all experiments. However, in soils with clay content at or greater than 20%, the scour depth on both sides and even in the wake of the pier was found to be about the same as the maximum scour depth.    8 3. Local scour in soils of cohesive/non-cohesive mixtures is a function of Pier Reynolds Number and clay content. The equilibrium scour depth increases with an increase in both parameters. Values of scour depth predicted by non-cohesive scour depth prediction equations are smaller than those predicted by the equation developed in this project for soils of cohesive/non-cohesive mixtures at high velocities. This is probably due to the refilling of the scour hole by sand during the high flow live bed scour. The side slope of the scour hole increases with the increasing clay content. However, the width and volume of scour hole upstream of the pier are inversely proportional to the clay content.  4.  5.  References  Chiew, Y.M. & Melville, B.W. (1987),  Local Scour Around Bridge Piers , Journal of Hydraulics Research , IAHR, Vol.25, January, 15-26. Ettema, R. (1980), Scour at Bridge Piers, Ph.D Dissertation, Civil Engineering Department, University of Auckland, New Zealand. Gudavalli, S.R. (1997), Prediction Model for Scour Rate Around Bridge Piers in Cohesive Soil on the Basis of Flume Tests, Ph.D Dissertation , Civil Eng. Department, Texas A & M University. Hosny, M.M. (1995), Experimental Study of Local Scour Around Circular Bridge Piers in Cohesive Soil, Ph.D Dissertation , Civil Engineering Department, Colorado state University. May, R.W.P. & Willoughby, I.R. (1990), Local Scour Around Large Obstructions, HR Wallingford, Report SR 240. Melville, B.W. & Sutherland, A.J. (1988),  Design Method for Local Scour at Bridge Piers , Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, Vol.114, October, 1210-1226. Neill, C.R. (1968),  Note on Initial Movement of Coarse Uniform Bed Material , Journal of Hydraulics Research, IAHR, Vol.17, February, 247-249. Raudkivi, A.J. & Ettema, R. (1983),  Clear Water Scour at Cylindrical Piers , Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, Vol.109, March, 338-350. Richardson, E.V, & Davis, S.R. (1995), Evaluation Scour at Bridges, 3rd edition, (HEC-18), Report Number: FHWA-IP-90-017, Federal Highway Administration, Washington DC. Shen, H.W., Schneider, V.R. & Karaki, S. (1969),  Local Scour around Bridge Piers , Journal of Hydraulics Division, Proceedings of the ASCE, Vol.95, No.HY6, 1919-1940. Sheppard, D.M. (1999),  Conditions of Maximum Local Structure-induced Sediment Scours , Stream Stability and Scour at Highway Bridges: Compendium of Papers ASCE Water Resources Engineering Conferences 1991 to 1998, Ed: Richardson, E.V. & Lagasse, Reston, VA, ASCE 1999, 347-364.    ",195);arrFiles[77]=new Array(79,"http://www.juruterajasa.com/resources/Support of Raised Embankment of a Small Dam by CementColu.pdf","2003-09-26","Microsoft Word - Support of Raised Embankment of a Small Dam by Cement Colu.","","","SUPPORT OF RAISED EMBANKMENT OF A SMALL DAM BY CEMENT COLUMNS  Ting Wen Hui 1, Kenny Yee 2, Tai Lee Yoon 3 & Dominic Ek-Leong Ong 4  ABSTRACT A small 30-year old 8.5m high dam for a storage basin needs to be raised by 1.2m to impound a greater quantity of water. The upper section of the existing dam being normally below operating level has been subjected to wetting and drying over the years and shrinkage cracks are expected to have developed. When the dam is raised this section would be subjected to disturbance during the earthworks operation and shall subsequently be permanently submerged. This section therefore needs to be improved to support the raised embankment and maintain the integrity of the dam against instability and piping. The improvement comprised 250mm diameter cement grout columns at 2.8m2 grid. The depth of the column was 1.6m. In the design of the improvement, besides the strength target due consideration was given to minimize differential movement within the dam body due to potential piping problems in weakened planes and crack sections. The construction procedure and the long-term performance of the improvement should achieve the desired performance. The construction of the improvement using the controlled modulus cement grout column (CGC) was successfully completed and the dam was maintained operational during the works. Keywords: Dam; Controlled modulus cement grout columns; Pressuremeter test; Transient analysis.  1.  INTRODUCTION  It is desirous to raise the 30-year old dam by 1.2m to impound a greater quantity of water for a storage basin located at Matang, Sarawak. The material of the existing dam has been found to be clayey silty sand for the shoulder, and a more clayey material for the impervious core. A concrete cut-off penetrating into the underlying siltstone/sandstone formation has been provided at the lower section of the core. As part of the construction in raising the dam, a new concrete parapet wall was constructed. Additional shoulder material of 1.2m thick compacted to 95% of maximum Proctor dry density was placed above. The crosssection of the raised embankment is as presented in figure 1. The raising of the dam required in-situ strengthening of the existing core below the parapet wall. Since the dam core is more susceptible to cracking than the shoulders because of the higher clay content, it is critical that brittle failure and progressive fissuring of surrounding material is to be avoided during construction. Controlled modulus cement grout column was used. A pre-determined design cement grout mix was placed in  ____________________________  1 2  Principal, Dr. W.H. Ting Consultants Sdn Bhd, Kuala Lumpur Regional General Manager, Menard Geosystems Sdn Bhd, Kuala Lumpur 3 Principal Director, Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd, Kuching 4 Formerly Project Engineer, Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd, Kuching Currently PhD. Research Scholar, National University of Singapore, Singapore    the core by means of a non-vibratory displacement cast-in-place technique. During construction of these semirigid columns, the displacement  volumetric  strain was controlled in order not to exceed the yield strength of the core material. The dam was operational during the construction works.  New RC parapet wall  New backfill shoulder material  Existing claycore material  Cement grout columns  Figure 1.  Cross-section of the raised dam  2.  DESIGN  In the soil investigation, in order to avoid damage to the dam core, shallow auger holes were sunk as the dam was still operational. The crusted core material was too brittle to be sampled. As a result, there was difficulty in assessing the strength of the core material in the cracked portions after saturation (upon raising of the dam water level). Based on the moisture content, particle size and visual examination the core material was assigned the minimum cohesion strength of 10kPa before improvement. In the design of the improvement works using cement grout columns, besides the strength target it has to be kept in mind that differential movement within the dam body is hazardous because of potential piping problems in weakened planes and crack sections. Potential fissuring of surrounding core material during construction of the columns was a concern especially when the dam was kept operational during the works. Hence, the choice of improvement was limited to in-situ reinforcement technique with minimum disturbance to the surrounding material. The improvement comprised 250mm diameter cement grout columns installed at 1.8m triangular grid (i.e. one column per 2.8m2) giving a volumetric strain of 1.7%. This volumetric strain was checked against the limit pressure of the core material (see later section on Pressuremeter Test) so as not to exceed the yield strength of the material. The depth of the column was 1.6m. The construction of the columns was carried out using nonvibratory static push-in displacement method which provided minimum disturbance to the surrounding core material. The installation process displaced the material into the shaft wall with no extraction of material above ground. The displacement is  volumetric  effect and has no shear. It is a cylindrical expansion effort similar to the pressuremeter test. During expansion, an element of soil in the annulus beyond the circumference of the soil behaves as in an undrained triaxial test, with the major principal stress in the radial direction and the minor principal stress in the circumferential direction.    The minimum composite strength of the  cement columns-core material  block was 20 kPa in order to achieve the desired factor of safety against draw-down instability. To ensure the composite block behaves as an equal strain material and based on the above column design and target strength, the unconfined compressive strength of the cement column was designed for 4MPa.  3.  PRESSUREMETER TEST  Prior to the construction of the cement grout columns, in-situ pressuremeter test was carried out to determine the yield strength of the core material to prevent brittle failure and progressive fissuring of the surrounding material during construction. The pressuremeter test consists of placing a cylindrical probe in the ground and expanding the probe to pressurize the soil horizontally. Therefore, the pressuremeter test gives an in-situ stress-strain curve of the core material. A normalized test was carried out at every meter vertical intervals until reaching 2m below the bottom end of the columns in order to obtain a complete profile of the core material yield strength. Limit pressure (PL) was measured from the tests. This value corresponds to the limiting state of failure of a soil subjected to an increasing uniform pressure on the wall of a cylindrical cavity. From this value, the corresponding volume change was analyzed to determine the volumetric strain corresponding to the limit pressure at limiting state of failure and the design volume-displacement of the columns was designed not to exceed this limiting volumetric strain which was less than 3%. The measured lower bound PL value was 200kPa (2 bars). During construction of the columns, the grouting pressure was monitored and regulated to be less than 100kPa (i.e. 50% of the limit pressure) in order not to exceed the critical yield strength of the surrounding core material.  4.  SEEPAGE AND SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSES  As the dam has been constructed some 30 years ago, it is prudent to perform slope stability analyses to assess the stability of its shoulders, especially during the drawdown of the reservoir to facilitate the installation of the cement grout columns. In order to gain a better understanding of the seepage behaviour caused by the increased water level as well as the addition of the new fill at the downstream shoulder, detailed analyses that included all the proposed and existing fills as well as the sand drainage layers were carried out using SEEP/W, which is a finite element seepage analysis software. SEEP/W also has the capability of handling partially saturated residual soil, typically the behaviour of the compacted new fill. Besides that, SEEP/W was also used to perform transient seepage analyses to simulate the rapid drawdown of the reservoir. Subsequently, the respective phreatic surfaces from the SEEP/W analyses were exported to SLOPE/W so that slope stability analyses of the dam shoulders could be performed with greater accuracy and reliability. From the slope stability analyses, the contribution of the cement grout columns can also be assessed. The material properties used in the both the SEEP/W and SLOPE/W analyses are shown in Table 1. Reasonably assumed ru values of the fill materials and the clay core are adopted for the end-of-construction slope stability analyses. Table 2 shows the computed factors of safety (FOS) of the dam shoulders for various cases analysed. It is observed that during the drawdown of the reservoir, if the crusted, old clay core is not strengthened by the cement grout columns, a FOS of 1.261 is obtained. However, after treatment, an improved FOS of 1.404 is obtained as shown in Figure 2. Therefore, the presence of the cement grout columns has been proven to contribute to the strength of the crusted clay core and thus reduces the possibility of the upstream slope failure during the most critical stage of construction.    Table 1.  Material properties adopted in the SEEP/W and SLOPE/W analyses. Bulk density (kN/m3) 20 18 18 18 22 18 22 Strength parameters c \' (kPa)  () 5 28 10 10 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 35 30 30 ru 0.1 (existing) 0.2 (new) 0.25 0.35 0.35 -  Material Upstream & downstream shoulder Existing clay core New clay core Treated clay Rip rap Sand Foundation Table 2.  Factors of safety of dam shoulders for various cases analysed. Shoulder Upstream (treated with CGC) Upstream (without CGC) Downstream Upstream Downstream FOS 1.404 1.261 1.283 1.422 1.608  Scenario Rapid drawdown End-of-construction Steady-state (long-term)  Figure 2.  Improved stability of the upstream shoulder after treatment of existing clay core using cement grout columns (CGC) in the case of a rapid drawdown.  The pore water pressure that is generated during the placement of the new downstream fill may not be fully dissipated during or immediately after placement. Therefore, the end-of-construction stage is also critical, especially for the downstream shoulder. By specifying the conservative ru values as shown in Table 1 in the    SLOPE/W analysis, a FOS of 1.283 is obtained for the downstream shoulder. This short-term FOS is deemed acceptable. Over time, the excess pore water pressure will be dissipated due to consolidation adjustment and a steady-state condition will eventually be achieved. The computed FOS for the steady-state condition are 1.422 and 1.608 (see Figure 3) for the upstream and downstream shoulders, respectively. The relatively high FOS for the downstream slope at steady-state is due to the assumption that the sand drainage layers are fully functioning. This brings to light the importance of ensuring proper construction of the sand drainage layers to avoid problems arising from piping, which could threaten the stability of the dam.  Figure 3.  Steady-state FOS of 1.608 for the downstream shoulder, provided that the sand drainage layers are fully functioning.  5.  CONSTRUCTION  The construction of the cement grout columns consisted of three stages. Stage 1 comprised forming a pilot hole through the upper 60cm stiff hard crust layer using a spire tool equipped with a vertical crowding force (push-in) in combination with rotation. No vibration was used and the pilot hole was created with a slightly smaller diameter than the column. Stage 2 involved penetration of a 250mm diameter cement column displacement-grouting tool into the ground by rotation coupled with a vertical crowding force (push-in) to reach the desired depth. During the penetration process, the core material was displaced laterally into the shaft wall with no extraction of material above ground. The penetration was carried out in a single continuous operation at a constant rate of about 20cm per min and rotated in the same direction during the whole process. Stage 3 comprised the formation of the column by grouting. The lower part of the displacement-grouting tool was equipped with a shoe at the injection outlet. This shutter system prevented the intrusion of soft soil during the penetration process. During the withdrawal process, the cement grout mix was then pumped under nominal pressure less than 100kPa to fill the void volume, thus forming the cement grout column. The rate of withdrawal was kept at about 20cm per min until it reached the upper 1m where the rate was increased to about 30cm per min. This rate was controlled by the flow rate of the cement grout mix. The average daily production was 25 columns per 8-hour shift.    The cement grout column installation machine used is as shown in figure 4. It was attached with a 250mm diameter displacement-grouting tool equipped with a pull-down force of 27kN and a pull-up force of 52kN. It has a torque of 6kN.m and weighs about 4 tons. The same machine was used for the pressuremeter testing.  6.  TEST COLUMNS  A field trial was carried out to check the field strength of the cement grout mix and the structural integrity of the completed columns. The diameter, length and the verticality of the completed columns were measured. Cored samples were taken continuously for 3m length for laboratory strength tests. Five test columns were constructed at different locations. Figure 5 shows one of the test columns. Pre-installation trial mix for the cement grout was carried out to determine the final mix composition. Varying the water-cement ratio and the cementbentonite ratio gives different compressive strengths as presented in figure 6. The final cement grout mix used for the columns was a mixture of cementbentonite in the ratio of 6.0, with a water-cement ratio of 1.0. The compressive strength after 7 days was 4.5MPa with shrinkage volume of less than 0.5%. Figure 4. Installation machine with displacementgrouting tool attachment  Compressive Strength (MPa)  10  Water:Cement = 1.0 Water:Cement = 1.1 Water:Cement = 1.2  8  6  4  2  0 3 4 5 6 7  Cement : Bentonite Ratio  Figure 6.  Compressive strength of cement grout mix design after 7 days  Figure 5 Exposed test column    Strength tests on the completed columns indicated an average value of 5MPa after 7 days. Measured diameter of the test columns was about 250mm and the length of the column was about 1.6m with a standard deviation of less than 3%.  6.  CONCLUSION  The raising of the dam required improvement to be carried out at the core while maintaining the dam operational at all times. The core material was susceptible to brittle failure and progressive fissuring giving concern to potential piping problems in weakened planes and crack sections. Hence, the choice of improvement will be one that provides the required target strength and minimum vibration in order to minimize differential movement within the dam body. The choice of using 250mm diameter cement grout columns and the adopted construction procedure proved to be successful. The displaced volume (volumetric strain) during construction of the column was maintained and controlled in order not to exceed the yield strength of the core material. The in-situ yield strength was determined by in-situ pressuremeter test prior to the commencement of the improvement works. The limit pressure obtained from the pressuremeter tests provided the limiting volumetric strain (< 3%) and the limiting grouting pressure (< 2 bars) during construction. Seepage and slope stability analyses have been performed to assess the stability of the dam shoulders during and after installation of the cement grout columns. It is revealed that the installation of the cement grout columns have successfully increased the factor of safety of the upstream dam shoulder against slip, especially during drawdown of the reservoir. The results of the analyses also emphasize the importance of having fully functioning sand drainage layers as occurrence of piping can threaten the stability of the dam. The installation of the cement grout column comprised forming a cylindrical cavity by pushing in a displacement-grouting tool to the required depth of 1.6m. As the tool was withdrawn, cement grouting was carried out to form column. The cement grout used was a mixture of cement-bentonite in the ratio of 6.0, with a water-cement ratio of 1.0. The field strength of the mix was about 5MPa after 7 days. The pressuremeter testing and the construction of the cement columns were carried out using a simple and light machine (HD46 installation rig) modified for the works. The installation rig and the construction sequence were well adapted to the rogue working condition on site. The construction of the improvement was successfully completed.  REFERENCES Menard Geosystems (2002), Design, supply and construction of cement grout columns using CMC method including in-situ pressuremeter tests at Sebubut Dam, Technical Report.    ",442);arrFiles[78]=new Array(80,"http://www.juruterajasa.com/resources/Centrifuge Article - BorneoPost 1 Sept 06.pdf","2006-09-01","scan-4.XDW","","","    ",918);arrFiles[79]=new Array(81,"http://www.juruterajasa.com/resources/DEL Ong 3iYGEC-b3.pdf","2007-02-02","Microsoft Word - DEL Ong 3iYGEC-b.doc","","","3rd International Young Geotechnical Engineer Conference, 12-16 Sept 2005, Osaka, Japan.  The Role of Physical Modelling to Study Geotechnical Failures  DOMINIC EK-LEONG ONG1, Leung C.F.2 & Chow Y.K.3 1. CPG Consultants Pte. Ltd., Civil & Transportation Division, Singapore 2. The National University of Singapore, Civil Engineering Department, Singapore 3. The National University of Singapore, Civil Engineering Department, Singapore  ABSTRACT: The use and benefits of physical modeling in the study of geotechnical failures is demonstrated in this paper. Centrifuge model studies on the performance of piles behind an unstable retaining wall as well as the responses of piles due to tunnel collapse in sand are clay are used as illustrative cases. During the failure of the wall or the tunnel, an enhanced image processing system is used to provide visualization of the soil movement patterns and trends. The observations together with the measured bending moment and deflection profiles along the pile and ground settlements provide valuable information on the failure mechanism of the problems understudy as real-life structures are not normally built and then tested to failure due to tremendous amount of money and time involved. Keywords: Soil flow, failure, tension cracks, soil movement, limiting soil pressure, image processing  1 INTRODUCTION Geotechnical failures, when happen, cause significant human, financial and time loss and are also very difficult to remedy. Unforeseeable failures occur when sub-standard construction practices have been adopted. High variability and insufficient or inaccurate soil investigation results of subsurface soil layers and properties can also lead to erroneous designs, which are recipes to potential failures. Unfortunately, geotechnical failures do occur occasionally. For instance, Ong et al. (2004) highlighted the failure of a 4-pile group consisting large 900-mm diameter cast-in-situ concrete bored piles due to a nearby slope excavation as the design of the bored piles neglected the effects of lateral soil movements caused by the excavation. In addition, Ting et al. (1994) reported the failure of piles supporting an embankment due to landslip, Poulos (1994) reported the piled foundation failure of an office tower due to a nearby excavation, and the failure of a pile-supported wharf structure due to riverbank movement has been described by Ting and Tan (1997). Painful lessons can be learnt from each failure so that such failures can be avoided in the future. Nevertheless, it is also important to understand the behaviour of the structures during and after failure so as to widen the knowledge beyond the serviceability limits of structures. Real-life structures are not normally built and then tested to failure as tremendous amount of money and time is involved. Therefore, full-scale testing of a structure to failure  is generally deemed to be uneconomical and undesirable. Physical modelling can offer an attractive alternative to further understand the behaviour and mechanisms behind complex soil-structure interaction problems. However, the results of conventional laboratory small-scale model tests cannot be extrapolated to prototype scale as the behaviour of soil is stress-dependent. Nonetheless, the use of centrifuge modeling technique can overcome this shortcoming. Centrifuge model tests can be carried out under a controlled environment where the soil strength profiles, soil deformation and elapsed time can be measured with reasonable accuracy resulting in reliable test results. Besides that, the consistent repeatability of centrifuge experiments also renders centrifuge model study attractive and relatively economical. 2 PRINCIPLES OF CENTRIFUGE MODELLING Centrifuge modeling technique is now widely used by researchers to study geotechnical problems. In the English speaking world, the first papers on centrifuge modeling were presented at the 7th International Conference for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering in Mexico (Avghorinos and Schofield, 1969; Mikasa et al., 1969). There are over 100 geotechnical centrifuges worldwide of which almost half of them were in Japan (Kimura, 1998). In Asia besides Japan, there are several centrifuges    in China, and one each in Singapore, Taiwan, Korea, Hong Kong and India. The geotechnical centrifuge in Singapore, which is one of the major research facilities of the Centre for Soft Ground Engineering at NUS, is the first centrifuge commissioned in Southeast Asia in 1990. When fully swung up, the NUS centrifuge has a radius of 1.81 m and a maximum acceleration field of 200g. The capacity of the centrifuge, which is defined as the maximum g-level times the corresponding payload, is 40 g-t. Specifications of the NUS centrifuge are presented in Lee et al. (1991). When a centrifuge model rotates at an angular velocity , it is subjected to a simulated gravitational field of N times earth \'s gravity, Ng, such that Ng = 2R ................................ (1) where R is the radius of a given point to the center of the centrifuge. Under a constant , the acceleration field Ng increases with the distance away from the center. The mean radius R is normally taken at the upper third-point of model but R may be varied depending on the model boundary conditions. It should be noted that different scaling laws apply to various parameters including dimensions, weight, load, pressure and time (in terms of viscous flow, dynamics and soil consolidation). Details of the governing scaling laws are given in Taylor (1995) and Chandrasekaran (2000). There are three major advantages of centrifuge modeling over conventional small-scale model tests: namely (1) the accurate simulation of stress level for soil, (2) expedition of consolidation time for clay and (3) energy scaling. As the behaviour of soil is highly stress-dependent, the test results of conventional small-scale laboratory model tests cannot be directly extrapolated to prototype scale. This deficiency can be overcome by subjecting the model to Ng such that the stress levels of the centrifuge model at Ng and those of the simulated prototype are identical. The consolidation time for clay can be significantly expedited in a centrifuge model. The consolidation time follows a scaling law of N2 such that a 1-hr soil consolidation at 200g in the centrifuge would be equivalent to 40,000 hrs (i.e. 200 x 200 x 1 hrs) or over 4.57 years soil consolidation in prototype scale. As the scaling law for energy is N3, this implies that 1 gram of explosive at 100g is equivalent to 1 million grams of explosive in prototype scale. By taking advantage of this law, researchers need only a small amount of explosive in the centrifuge to simulate a huge blast. It should be noted that there are limitations associated with centrifuge modelling. Some of the limitations have been highlighted by Chandrasekaran (2000). As mentioned earlier, the acceleration field increases with the distance from the centre of the  centrifuge. Problems exist when testing a long model pile in which the acceleration field varies considerably from the pile top to the pile toe. For such cases, researchers often take the critical applied load position for pile under lateral loading or the upper-third height of the model pile for pile under axial loading as the elevation to obtain the effective centrifuge acceleration field. Another major concern is the grain size effect for sand. For a geotechnical structure that is only a little larger than the sand grains, care must be taken to ensure minimum modelling errors by checking the model results using the modeling of model technique recommended by Ovesen (1979). Bolton et al. (1993) reported that a minimum of 20 sand grains beneath a model pile/probe is necessary to achieve a minimal modelling error. As there are 3 different scaling laws for time, this implies potential conflicts in time scaling in certain centrifuge model tests. For soil dynamic studies in a saturated soil model, viscous fluid such as silicone oil with a viscosity N times that of water can be employed to overcome the time scaling law conflicts. 3 EXCAVATION IN SAND Theoretical methods (e.g. Poulos and Chen, 1996 and 1997) have been developed to evaluate the behaviour of pile subject to excavation-induced soil movement. However, very limited field data are available to verify the theoretical methods as it is practically impossible to instrument existing piles in the field.  Figure 1  Centrifuge model set-up (all dimensions in mm)  Centrifuge model test is an attractive alternative to investigate such class of problem. The first study reported in this paper involves the centrifuge model study of pile responses due to nearby excavation in dry sand. Figure 1 shows the centrifuge model setup. Details of the experimental setup and procedures are given in Leung et al. (2000). In summary, the    instrumented model pile has a prototype width of 630 mm at 50g and the distance of pile from the model retaining wall varies accordingly. The model retaining wall is simulated using a 3-mm (150-mm) thick aluminum plate. The equivalent prototype bending rigidity, EI, of the model pile and wall are approximately 2.2 x 105 kNm2 (equivalent to a 600mm diameter Grade 35 bored pile or a 610-mm diameter steel pipe pile with 12.7 mm wall thickness) and 24 x 103 kNm2/m (equivalent to a FSP IIA sheet pile), respectively. Before test, a prescribed height of sand in front of the wall is replaced by zinc chloride contained in a latex bag. After the centrifuge model reaches 50g, the in-flight excavation process is simulated by gradually releasing the zinc chloride from the latex bag. The pile head deflection, the bending moment profiles along the pile and the wall and soil movements are monitored at regular intervals throughout the tests. The variations of wall deflection and rotation with excavation depth are shown in a log-log scale in Figure 3. It is evident that an approximate bi-linear relationship exists in which the interception of the two straight lines denotes the occurrence of wall failure after which excessive wall deflection occurs with a small increase in soil excavation depth. Thus Figure 3 reveals that the wall fails at an excavation height of about 5 m for test PC2. Such observation has a useful implication in practice. At a site, if the measured wall deflection and rotation of an unstrutted excavation (during cantilever stage) are plotted against excavation depth in a log-log scale, a sudden change in the gradient of the deflection/rotation-excavation depth response would denote anticipated near-failure of the retaining wall and excavation should be immediately stopped and appropriate remedial action needs to be urgently taken.  Two centrifuge model tests were performed with pile-1 located at 2 m from the retaining wall in the first test while pile-2 is located at 4 m from the wall in the second test. Figure 4 shows the induced bending moment profiles of the 2 piles. Although the maximum bending moment for both piles is located at around 7.5m depth, it is obvious that pile-1 experiences about 3 times greater induced bending moment (about 210 kNm in prototype scale) than that of pile-2 (about 70 kNm). It is also evident that the excavation-induced soil movements had a detrimental effect on the adjacent piles, especially for piles that are located within the active pressure rupture zone behind the wall with soils experiencing significantly larger soil movements.  0.0 0.0  excavation depth 1m  D e p th b e lo w g r o u n d s u r fa c e (m )  2.5  2m 3m 4m 5m  D e p t h b e l o w g r o u n d s u r f a c e (m )  2.5  5.0  6m  5.0  7.5  7.5  (a)  (b)  10.0  10.0  12.5 0 50 100 150 200 250  12.5 0 50 100  Bending moment (kN-m)  Bending moment (kN-m)  Figure 4 Induced bending moments in piles (a) pile-1 and (b) pile-2 (after Leung et al., 2000)  25  1 000 100.0  pile-1 deflection pile -1 rotation  0.25  (a) Test PC2  pile -2 rotation  Wall Head Rotation (degree)  Wall Head Deflection (mm)  ( b) Test WC1  100  15  0.15  Def lecti on Rota ti on  1 0.0  10  0.10  10  1.0  5  0.05  0 0  1 0.1  0.00 1 2 3 4 5 6  E xcavation depth(m)  1  2  3  4  5  678  Figure 5  Ex cava tion Depth (m)  Figure 3 Wall deflection and rotation versus excavation depth (after Leung et al., 2000)  Variation of pile head deflection and rotation with excavation depth (after Leung et al., 2000)  Pile head rotation (degree)  Pile head deflection (mm)  D ef lecti on  20  pile-2 deflection  0.20    Depth (m)  Figure 5 shows the variations of pile head deflection and rotation with excavation depth for both piles. Up to an excavation depth of 1.5 m, both piles hardly deflect. Once the excavation depth exceeds 1.5 m, the pile deflection and rotation increase approximately linearly with excavation depth. Pile-1 experiences a much larger pile deflection than that of Pile-2, a trend that is consistent with the bending moment profile observations shown in Figure 4. However, as the excavation depth exceeds 5 m (the excavation depth at which the wall fails as elaborated earlier), the deflection and rotation of both piles cease to increase despite significant increase in sand movements caused by the wall failure. Video pictures reveal that at this stage, the sand flows past the pile in both tests resulting in no further increase in loading acting on the piles. These observations are again consistent with the bending moment observations illustrated in Figure 4 where no further increase in bending moment is noted for both piles after an excavation depth of 5 m.  Test PC1  zones behind a retaining wall. On the other hand, appropriate attention must be made to those existing piles located within the active rupture zone behind a new excavation. 4 EXCAVATION IN CLAY The above study is extended to evaluate the effects of excavation-induced soil movement on adjacent piles in clay.  Undrained shear strength (kPa) 0 4 8 12 16  Before excavation  0  20  2  Load cell  Main shaft  4.5mm diameter 7mm 35mm  4  After excavation  Bar factor Nb=10.5  6  T-bar  24 0 Maximum bending moment in pile (kN-m) 2 10 18 0  64 Bending moment Deflection Pile head deflection (mm) 48  Test PC2  8  cu/po \' = 0.29OCR0.85  56  10  15 0 12 0 90  40 32 24  Test PC3  Figure 7 Measured undrained shear strength profiles at 3 m behind retaining wall for Test 6 (after Ong et al., 2005 and Leung, et al., 2005)  Test PC4  60 30 0 0 1  16  Test PC5  8 0  2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Distance from retaining wall (m)  9  10  Figure 6 Variation of pile moments and deflections with distances from wall (after Leung et al., 2000)  A series of centrifuge model tests has been carried out to further examine the effect of distance of pile from the wall. Figure 6 shows the variations of induced maximum pile deflection and bending moment with distance of pile from wall at the end of excavation. It is evident that the maximum bending moment and pile deflection decrease exponentially with the distance of pile away from the wall. As the piles at 1 and 3 m away from the wall are located within the active pressure rupture zone and hence experiencing large soil movements, it is not surprising that they also experience large induced pile deflection and bending moment. Thus it is recommended that if possible, engineers should not install new piles within the active pressure rupture  Figure 7 shows the undrained shear strength profile of the clay obtained from T-bar penetrometer test conducted in-flight at the pile location (3 m behind wall) prior to and after soil excavation for the test in clay. It is evident that an over-consolidated crust exists at the top of the clay layer and a significant reduction in the undrained shear strength is observed for the top 3 m of the clay after excavation. It is observed that there was a reduction in soil undrained shear strength after excavation due to stress relief. This is explained in detailed in Leung et al., 2005). It is believed that the detrimental effects of soil movement in clay is more severe as clay is considerably weaker than sand and its behaviour is time-dependent. The development of induced pile bending moment and deflection with excavation depth of a typical test is shown in Figure 8. The pile bending moment profiles that varies with excavation depth is shown in Figure 9. As clay is much weaker than sand, the wall fails at an excavation depth of 1.8 m for the case of a  floating  wall, whereby the wall toe terminates in the soft clay layer without embedment into stiffer soil. Total wall embedment    depth is 8.0 m with approximate factor safety of slightly less than unity (Leung et al., 2005). Prior to wall failure, the free-head single pile bending moment and deflection increase with excavation depth similar to that observed for piles in sand except the magnitudes for piles in clay are much larger. However, unlike sand whereby the pile deflection and rotation cease to increase after the wall fails, piles in clay actually experience a reduction in pile bending moment after the wall fails accompanied by a corresponding slight increase in pile deflection. In addition, the performance of the pile is time-dependent. The time-dependent behaviour has been reported in detail in Ong et al. (2003a). Further test results on numerical prediction or back-analysis are also reported in Ong et al. (2003b).  retaining wall, PPT3 further behind the wall while PPT4 in front of the wall beneath the formation level. Figure 10 shows that most PPTs register excess negative pore water pressures immediately after excavation. Owing to relatively greater soil deformations near the wall, PPT2 registers a greater dissipation of excess negative pore water pressures as opposed to PPT3, which is located further away from the wall. The difference in excess pore water pressures creates a hydraulic gradient that leads to pore water pressure redistribution and hence, the reconsolidation of the clay over time. After excavation, the ground water level at the excavated side drops and this creates a water pressure head difference between the retained and excavated sides.  2  250  250 200  Excess pore water pressure (kPa)  PPT 3 0 PPT 2 -2 PPT 1 PPT 4 -4  B e n din g moment (kNm)  200 150  150  D eflection  100 50 0 0 0. 4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2  100 50 0  D e fle c t ion (mm)  Bendin g moment  -6 0 5 10 15 20 Time (days) 25 30  Excavation depth (m) Figure 8 Responses of pile with excavation depth in clay (after Leung et al., 2003)  Bending moment (kNm)  0 2.5 0 50  Symbol Excavation depth (m)  Figure 10 Variations of excess pore water pressure with time for  floating  wall in clay (after Ong et al., 2005)  0  Excavation depth (m)  10 0  15 0  200  250  S ettlem e nt (m)  1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8  Symbol  0.6  Depth (m)  0.3  0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8  5 7.5 10 12.5  0.6  Time after excavation (days)  50 200 300  Figure 9  Bending moment profiles for pile embedded in clay (after Leung et al., 2003)  0.9  0 4 8 12 16  Pore pressure transducers (PPT) were installed with PPT1 and PPT2 installed just behind the  Distance from wall (m) Figure 11 Ground settlement profiles during and after excavation in clay (after Ong et al., 2004)    PPT4 shows a rebound or dissipation of excess negative pore water pressure over time. The excess negative pore water pressures in the retained side are relatively small as they may be partly cancelled out by the positive pore water pressures generated by the undrained shearing of the clay. The tilted wall causes the clay behind the wall to settle and the ground settlement continues to increase over time after the completion of excavation, as shown in Figure 11.  High-resolution photographs were taken during various excavation stages in clay, as shown in the left-hand side of Figure 12. It is evident that tension cracks have developed when excavation depth exceeds 1.0 m. These cracks cause the loss of contact of clay in front of the pile. This in turn prevents the full transmission of soil pressure onto the pile. It is also probable that the soil would flow past the pile and could not exert full pressure on the pile.  -1  Soil movement (mm) 1000  Depth (m)  -3  75 65 55 45 35 25  -5  Excavation 0.6 m, -7 1.0 days  -1  15 5  300 250  Depth (m)  -3  200 150 100 50  -5  Excavation 1.0 m, -7 1.7 days  -1  500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50  -5  Excavation 1.4 m, -7 2.4 days  -1  Depth (m)  -3  750 650  Depth (m)  -3  550 450 350 250 150 50  -5  Excavation 1.8 m, 3.0 days -7  1 3 5 7  Distance (m)  Figure 12 High-resolution photographs showing various excavation stages  (after Leung et al., 2003)    Figure 13 shows the top plan view of the deformed soil around the pile after excavation. It is again evident that there is a considerable drop in soil-pile contact and this explains the reduction in pile bending moments after the development of tension cracks as shown in Figure 8. It is observed that the soil starts to move ahead or  flow  past the pile at a relatively shallow excavation depth of 0.6 m, after which the difference between the soil and pile movements becomes more significant with increasing excavation depth as shown in Figure 14. The movement is expected to be reasonably large during excavation due to the low undrained shear strength profile of the clay as shown in Figure 2. As expected, greater soil movement is observed to occur nearer to the ground surface.  using a 7th order polynomial. Figure 15 shows the development of the maximum soil pressure values deduced from the corresponding bending moment profiles shown in Figure 9. It is evident that the limiting maximum soil pressure values have been reached at an excavation depth of 1.2 m. Thereafter, the soil pressures do not increase further with increasing excavation depth. This observation further reinforces the postulation that when the soil flows past the pile and also with the presence of the tension cracks in front of the pile as described earlier, the soil could not transmit its full pressure onto the pile, thus a drop in pile bending moment is noted as shown in Figure 9.  20  Deformed zone Large tension crack  Maximum back-analysed soil pressure (kPa)  16  12  8  Soil flow direction  4  0  Deformed zone  0  0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 Excavation depth (m)  2  Figure 13 Top plan view of deformed soil around pile after excavation (after Ong et al., 2005 and Leung et al. 2003)  250  Soil movement at depth below ground level (m) 0 .4 1 .4 2 .4 3 .4 4 .4 5 .4  Figure 15 Variation of maximum back-analysed soil pressure with excavation depth (after Ong et al., 2004)  5 TUNNELLING IN SAND Construction of subway tunnels, underground roads, deep sewerage tunnels and underground caverns has become more and more common in urban areas and these tunnels are often constructed close to existing buildings. The effects of tunneling-induced soil movement on adjacent foundation are more severe that those due to excavation-induced soil movement. In addition to additional bending moment and deflection on adjacent pile foundation, the former can also induce additional axial force (compression or tension) on the pile as well as additional pile settlement. Some findings of tunnel excavation in sand are reported first. Figures 16 and 17 show a photograph and sketch of the centrifuge model setup, respectively. Details of the experimental setup have been described in Feng et al. (2002). The tests were conducted at 100g. The model tunnel lining is made of brass foil and wrapped around the tunnel-shaped polystyrene foam core. The lining was soldered using tin solder and an electronic soldering gun. The tunnel is 210  Lateral movement (mm)  200 150 100 50 0 0  Pile head  0 .3  0 .6  0 .9  1 .2  1 .5  1 .8  Excavation depth (m)  Figure 14 Variations of pile head deflection and soil movement (after Ong et al., 2004)  In order to verify the soil flow phenomenon, the soil pressure profiles are obtained by differentiating the measured pile bending moment profiles twice    mm long (21 m at prototype scale) and 60 mm (6 m at prototype scale) in diameter. The horizontal centre-line of the tunnel is at 15 m. By switching the appropriate solenoid valve on, acetone can flow from the container through a tube to dissolve the polystyrene foam inside the tunnel lining during centrifuge flight to simulate the in-flight tunnel excavation process. This tunnel excavation technique has been also adopted from Sharma et al. (2001). The detail configuration for the model tunnel excavation process is given in Figure 18. The tunnel excavation process could be observed through a CCTV camera in the centrifuge control room. The polystyrene foam core was dissolved quickly by acetone in about 2 minutes model time.  The ground surface settlement trough during tunnel excavation was measured with an array of displacement transducers as shown in Figure 17. The observed ground surface settlement trough shown in Figure 19 resembles a classical Gaussianshape settlement trough. In this test, the model tunnel lining is not strong enough and the tunnel completely collapses during excavation. This test condition represents the worst situation in practice. Figure 20 shows the maximum induced bending moment profile of the pile due to tunneling. This pile is located 9m away from tunnel vertical centre-line and has a bending moment capacity over 3000kNm.  LVDT  pile  strain gauge  sand tunnel  Figure 16 Photo of centrifuge model setup for tunnelpile interaction study (after Feng et al., 2002)  Figure 17 Schematic of centrifuge model setup for tunnelpile interaction study (dimensions in mm) (after Feng et al., 2002)  Figure 18 Detail configuration for the model tunnel excavation process (after Ran  et al., 2003)    Distance from tunnel centre line (m)  -30 -20 -10 0 0 10 20 30  0.2  0.4  0.6  0.8  1  Gaussian Curve  1.2  tunnel have moved downwards, while the soils below the tunnel have moved upwards during the tunneling process as shown in Figure 22. This explains why the axial load transfer of the pile below the tunnel elevation is positive. From this study, it can be observed that the maximum bending moment and axial load of the pile occurred at approximately the depth of the tunnel horizontal centre-line. However, the axial load gradually reduced below the tunnel centre-line. The induced pile bending moment and axial load were approximately 45% and 50% of the bending and axial capacities of the piles, respectively.  Load (kN)  Settlement (m)  Measured Curve  Figure 19  Ground settlement trough (after Leung, 2004)  0 0 5  Depth below ground (m)  500  1000  1500  Two square instrumented model piles of external prototype width of 1.26 m are employed. One pile is used to monitor the pile settlement and axial load transfer while the other pile is used to monitor the pile deflection and bending moment. The observed maximum induced bending moment of the pile is located at approximately at the depth of horizontal tunnel center and has a magnitude of 1345 kNm (see Figure 20) which is within the pile bending moment capacity. However, check must be made to ensure that the sum of applied bending moment due to superstructure loading and induced bending moment due to tunneling should not exceed the pile capacity.  Bending moment (kNm)  0 0 500 1000 1500  10 15 20 25  Figure 21 Axial force profile in pile (after Leung, 2004)  Depth below ground (m)  5 10 15 20 25  Figure 20 Bending moment profile in pile due to tunneling (after Leung, 2004)  Figure 21 shows that the induced axial load increases downwards from the pile head, and reaches a maximum value of 1232 kN at approximately the depth of tunnel center, and then reduces till the pile tip. This pile is a floating pile with its tip at 20 mm above the container base, and its axial load capacity is over 2500 kN. It is noted that the soils above the  Figure 22  Soil movement around tunnel (after Leung, 2004)  6 TUNNELLING IN CLAY The above study is further extended to investigate the effect of tunnel excavation on adjacent piles in clay using the same centrifuge model setup. Details    Distance From Tunnel Central Line m  -2 5 -20 -1 5 -10 -5 0 0 5 10 15 20 25  Depth Depth Belowground below GL m  of the test results are reported in Ran et al. (2003). Figure 23 shows the tunneling-induced surface settlement trough measured in clay at the end of excavation. The settlement trough obtained for a test in sand having similar volume loss is included for comparison. The settlement trough for sand is much narrower than that of clay, which probably indicates a different failure mechanism. For clay, the deformation of the soil propagates upwards and outwards gradually from the tunnel to the ground surface. However, sand propagates sharply and almost vertically from the tunnel to the ground surface. These different mechanisms suggest that tunnel failure in sand may cause more severe damages to the structures above and nearby the tunnel, while for clay, it can cause differential settlement in a wider spread but may be less severe. Figure 24 shows the induced pile bending moment profile and Figure 25 shows the induced pile axial force profile. The maximum induced bending moment of 902 kN occurs approximately at the depth of tunnel centre along the pile and is below the pile bending moment capacity of 3000 kNm.  below the tunnel are small, there is positive axial load transfer along the pile below the tunnel. A LVDT resting on the top of the pile head is used to measure the vertical pile head settlement. The measured pile head settlement is 96mm in prototype scale. Since this pile is floating in soft clay instead of penetrating into a rigid stratum, it would behave essentially as a friction pile. Hence, the vertical settlement of the pile depends highly on the vertical soil movement along the pile shaft. As mentioned earlier, the upward soil movement below tunnel is much smaller than the downward soil movement above the tunnel. Furthermore, the soil/pile contact above the tunnel is also longer than that below the tunnel. These explain the large vertical settlement of the pile.  Bending moment (kNm)  -5 0 0 0 0 500 10 00 1 5 00  k Nm  -5  -1 0  -1 5  T un n el axis -1 5 m  Settlement m  -0 . 3  -2 0  -25  -0 . 6  Figure 24 Pile bending moment profile (after Leung, 2004)  -0 . 9  Axial load (kN)  -1.2  0 0 500 1000 1500  Measured Surface Settlement Trough in Clay of This Test  kN  Depth below ground (m)  Figure 23 Settlement trough in clay (after Leung, 2004)  -10  Depth Below GL m  Measured Surface Settlement Trough in Sand With a Corresponding Volume Loss 34.16% (Feng, et al. 200 2)  -5  The induced axial load increases downwards from the pile head, and reaches its maximum value of 1292 kN at approximate the depth of tunnel centre. The soil movement patterns observed through the beads reveals that lateral soil movement during tunnelling is towards the tunnel and induced pile deflection and bending moment; the vertical soil movements above tunnel are downwards during tunnelling. As a result, negative skin friction occurs along the upper pile shaft. In contrast, the soils below the tunnel move upwards and impose positive skin friction on the pile. As the soil movements  -15  Tunnel axis -15m  -20  -25  Figure 25 Pile axial force profile (after Leung, 2004)  7 CONCLUSIONS Centrifuge model studies have been carried out to study a variety of soil-structure interaction problems. In this paper, the results of the studies on the effects    of excavation-induced and tunneling-induced soil movements on adjacent piles in sand and in clay are presented. It is found that the performance of piles is severely affected if they are located close to an excavation. For piles in sand, the induced pile bending moments and pile head deflection due to excavation-induced soil movements increase with excavation depth but cease to increase upon wall failure as the sand mass is noted to flow past the pile at very large soil movements. For piles in clay, the induced bending moments along the pile due to excavation-induced soil movements reduce after the wall failure but the pile head deflection continues to increase slightly after the wall failure. The soil movements due to tunnel excavation affect both the vertical and lateral pile responses with significant induced bending moment and negative skin friction on the pile in clay. Thus appropriate checks must be performed when evaluating the performance of piles close to a deep excavation or tunnel excavation. This paper demonstrates that centrifuge modelling technique can be employed to investigate complex soil-structure interaction problems. With appropriate precautions taken against the limitations of centrifuge scaling laws and potential modelling errors, centrifuge model test results can provide very useful insight when designing complex soil-structure interaction problems and to provide a general understanding on pile behaviour during and after an excavation or tunnel collapse. Having such an understanding would be an added advantage when performing forensic engineering or risk assessment studies after a collapse had occurred nearby existing buildings. 8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Authors wish to acknowledge the contributions of R F Shen, J K Lim, S H Feng and X Ran. The ideas and suggestions provided by Profs C F Leung and Y K Chow are also gratefully appreciated. The assistance of technical support staff is also greatly appreciated. 9 REFERENCES Avgherinos, P.J. and Schofield, A.N. (1969). Drawdown failures of centrifuged models. Proceedings of 7th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Mexico City, 497-505. Bolton, M.D, Gui, M.W. and Phillips, R. (1993). Review of miniature soil probes for model tests, Proceedings of 13th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference, Singapore, 85-90. Chandrasekaran, V.S. (2000). Numerical and centrifuge modeling in soil-structure interaction, 23rd  Indian Geotechnical Society Annual lecture, Mumbai, (full paper appeared in Indian Geotechnical Journal). Feng, S.H., Leung, C.F., Chow, Y.K. and Dasari, G.R. (2002). Centrifuge modeling of pile responses due to tunneling, Proceedings 15th KKCNN Symposium on Civil Engineering, Singapore, G31G 36. Kimura, T. (1998). Development of geotechnical centrifuges in Japan, Proceedings of International Conference Centrifuge 98, Tokyo, 945-954. Lee, F.H., Tan, T.S., Leung, C.F., Yong, K.Y., Karunaratne, G.P. and Lee, S.L. (1991). Development of geotechnical centrifuge facility at National University of Singapore, Proceedings of International Conference Centrifuge 91, Boulder, 11-17. Leung, C.F., Chow, Y.K. and Shen, R.F. (2000). Behavior of pile subject to excavation-induced soil movement, Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 126, 11, 947-954. Leung, C.F., Ong, D.E.L. and Chow, Y.K. (2003). Study of geotechnical failures through physical modelling. Keynote address. Proc. Indonesian National Geotechnical Conference, Jakarta, Indonesia, pp. 1-10. Leung, C.F. (2004). Centrifuge model studies of soil-structure interaction problems. Keynote address. Proc. Indian National Geotechnical Conference, New Delhi, India. Leung, C.F., Ong, D.E.L and Chow, Y.K. (2005). Pile behaviour due to excavation-induced soil movement in clay: II: Collapsed wall. Accepted for publication. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE. Mikasa, M., Takada, N. and Yamada, K. (1969). Centrifuge model test of a rockfill dam, Proceedings of 7th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Mexico City, 325-333. Ong, D.E.L, Leung, C.F. and Chow, Y.K. (2003a). Time-dependent pile behavior due to excavation-induced soil movement in clay. Proceedings 12th Pan-American Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Boston, 2, 2035-2040. Ong, D.E.L, Leung, C.F. and Chow, Y.K. (2003b). Piles subject to excavation-induced soil movement in clay. Proceedings 13th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Prague, 2, 777-782. Ong, D.E.L., Leung, C.F. and Chow, Y.K. (2004). Pile behaviour behind a collapsed wall. Proc. International Conference on Structural and Foundation Failures, Singapore, pp. 410-421. Ong, D.E.L., Leung, C.F. and Chow, Y.K. (2005). Pile behaviour due to excavation-induced soil movement in clay: I: Stable wall. Accepted for    publication. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE. Ovesen, N.K. (1979). The scaling law relationship, Proceedings of 7th European Conference Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Brighton, 4, 319-323. Poulos, H.G., and Chen L.T. (1996). Pile response due to unsupported excavation induced lateral soil movement. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 33, 670-677. Poulos, H.G., and Chen L.T. (1997). Pile response due to excavation-induced lateral soil movement. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 123, 2, 9499. Poulos, H. G., (1994). Design of Piles subjected to Lateral Soil Movements. 5th Indonesian National Geotechnical Conference. Ran, X., Leung, C.F. and Chow, Y.K. (2003). Centrifuge modeling of tunnel-pile interaction in clay. Proceedings Underground Singapore 2003, Singapore. Sharma, J.S., Bolton, M.D. and Boyle, R.E. A (2001). New technique for simulation of tunnel excavation in centrifuge. Geotechnical Testing Journal, 24, 4, 343-349. Taylor, R.N. (1995). Centrifuges in modelling: principles and scale effects, Geotechnical Centrifuge Technology, Chapter 1, edited by R. N. Taylor, Blackie Academic and Professional, London, 19-33. Ting, W. H., Chan, S. F. and Ooi, T.A. (1994). Design Methodology and Experiences with Pile Supported Embankments, Symposium on Development in Geotechnical Engineering, AIT, Thailand. Ting, W. H., Tan, Y. K. (1997). The Movement of a Wharf Structure subject to Fluctuation of Water Level, Proc. of XIVth Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Hamburg, Germany.    ",1158);arrFiles[80]=new Array(82,"http://www.juruterajasa.com/resources/DEL Ong CF Leung YK Chow & DQ Yang.pdf","2007-01-26","Microsoft Word - DEL Ong CF Leung YK Chow & DQ Yang_rev1_.doc","","","Effect of Horizontal Limiting Soil Pressures on Pile Behaviour  D. E. L. Ong  Jurutera Jasa (Sarawak) Sdn. Bhd., Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia ongdel@juruterajasa.com  C. F. Leung1 & Y. K. Chow2  1  National University of Singapore, Singapore cvelcf@nus.edu.sg; 2cvechow@nus.edu.sg  D. Q. Yang  Sinclair Knight Merz Pty. Ltd., Melbourne, Australia YQuan@skm.com.au  Abstract: Pile responses that include bending moment and deflection are measured from well-established centrifuge tests for benchmarking against computer modelling using (i) a 2-D plane-strain finite element (FE) package and (ii) an existing numerical method developed at the National University of Singapore (NUS). In the 2-D plane-strain FE model, the actual pile properties are smeared to that of an  equivalent wall  and the soils are simulated using the linearly elastic-perfectly plastic Mohr-Coulomb. As for the existing NUS numerical method, actual pile properties are considered and the soils are modelled using modulus of subgrade reactions, where limiting soil pressures acting on a pile and free-field soil movements are two important input parameters. Back-analyses using smeared pile properties in the 2-D FE model show reasonable match for pile bending moment profiles. However, the deflection profiles have been over-predicted by the 2-D FE analysis. The NUS numerical method, on the other hand, can be used to accurately back-analyse the pile response, if the soil limiting pressures are correctly defined. More importantly, the centrifuge experiment results reveal that once the soil limiting pressures are reached, the pile responses would not increase further. This paper highlights the importance of the role of limiting soil pressures in providing a fundamental understanding of pile behaviour subject to lateral soil movements and provides an insight into the effect of horizontal limiting soil pressures on pile behaviour.  1  INTRODUCTION  Piles embedded in soils undergoing increasing lateral movements would experience increasing horizontal soil pressures which in turn causes additional induced pile bending moment and deflection. Horizontal limiting soil pressures are important because they define the maximum magnitude of soil pressures that can effectively act on a pile to cause an increase in the pile responses. Beyond this magnitude, no more soil pressures could be futher mobilised and act on the pile, which in turn would not result in further pile responses. Such scenario is particularly prevalent in piles embedded in soft and weak soils. Examples where piles are subject to lateral soil movements include those installed within the influence zones of excavation, tunnel boring, embankment construction, landslide and river bank movement. Commerical software such as PLAXIS 2-D and a numerical method developed at the National Univeristy of Singapore (NUS) have been deployed to provide comparisons to the wellestablished 3-D centrifuge results. 2 PRINCIPLES OF CENTRIFUGE MODELLING  level times the corresponding payload, is 40g-t. Specifications of the NUS centrifuge are presented in Lee et al. (1991). When a centrifuge model rotates at an angular velocity , it is subjected to a simulated gravitational field of N times earth \'s gravity, Ng, such that Ng = 2R (1)  where R is the radius of a given point to the center of the centrifuge. Under a constant , the acceleration field Ng increases with the distance away from the center. The mean radius R is normally taken at the upper third-point of model but R may be varied depending on the model boundary conditions. Bolton et al. (1993) reported that a minimum of 20 sand grains beneath a model pile is necessary to achieve a minimal modelling error. It should be noted that different scaling laws apply to various parameters including dimensions, weight, load, pressure and time. Details of the governing scaling laws are shown in Table 1. 3 CENTRIFUGE MODEL SET-UP  Centrifuge modelling technique is now widely used by researchers to study geotechnical problems. The geotechnical centrifuge in Singapore is the first centrifuge commissioned in Southeast Asia in 1990. When fully swung up, the NUS centrifuge has a radius of 1.81 m and a maximum acceleration field of 200g. The capacity of the centrifuge, which is defined as the maximum g-  The centrifuge model set-up and model ground preparation have been described in detail by Ong et al. (2006a) and Leung et al. (2006). In summary, the instrumented model pile has a prototype width of 630 mm at 50g and the distance of pile from the model retaining wall varies accordingly. The model retaining wall is simulated using a 3-mm (prototype 150-mm) thick aluminum plate with length of 160mm (8m). The equivalent prototype bending rigidity, EI, of the model pile and wall are approximately    2.2 x 105 kNm2 (equivalent to a 600-mm diameter Grade 35 bored pile or a 610-mm diameter steel pipe pile with 12.7 mm wall thickness) and 24 x 103 kNm2/m (equivalent to a FSP IIA sheet pile), respectively. Before test, a prescribed height of clay in front of the wall is replaced by zinc chloride contained in a latex bag. Table 1 Scaling relation in centrifuge modelling Parameter Linear dimension Area Volume Density Mass Acceleration Displacement Strain Energy Stress Force Time (creep) Time (dynamics) Time (seepage) Flexural rigidity, EI Axial rigidity, EA Bending moment Prototype 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Centrifuge model at Ng 1/N 1/N2 1/N3 1 1/N3 1/N 1/N 1 1/N3 1 1/N2 1 1/N 1/N2 1/N4 1/N2 1/N3  Fig. 2 Centrifuge model set-up to be subjected to acceleration of 50 times Earth \'s gravity (50-g) (after Ong et al., 2003) the T-bar was smoothened by machine to minimize friction during its penetration into the clay. Fig. 3 shows the undrained shear strength profile of the clay prior to and after excavation. The strength profile obtained prior to soil excavation suggests that the sample preparation process of excavation and placement of latex bag at 1g had not disturbed the clay significantly as long as the clay was subject to reconsolidation in the centrifuge prior to the test proper. In addition, the profile reveals a distinct top 2.5 m over-consolidated crust created by pre-consolidation at 1g and below which is a normally consolidated clay sample. After soil reconsolidation and prior to excavation, the undrained shear strength (cu) profile of the clay can be reasonably represented by: cu/ \'vo = 0.29 OCR0.85 (2)  After the centrifuge model reaches 50g, the in-flight excavation process is simulated by gradually releasing the zinc chloride from the latex bag. The pile head deflection, the bending moment profiles along the pile and the wall and soil movements are monitored at regular intervals throughout the tests. Figs. 1 and 2 show a photograph and a sketch of the centrifuge model setup, respectively.  where  \'vo is the effective overburden pressure and OCR is the over-consolidation ratio of the clay.  0  Before excavation at 3m behind wall  2 Depth (m)  After excavation at 1.5 m from wall  After excavation at 3 m behind wall  4  Main shaft  Load cell  4.5mm diameter 7mm 35mm  6  Bar factor Nb=10.5  T-bar  cu/po \' = 0.29OCR  0.85  F  Fig. 1 Photo of centrifuge model set-up for pile responses near excavation (after Ong et al., 2003) 4 CHARACTERISATION OF MODEL GROUND  8 0 4 8 12 Undrained shear strength (kPa) 16  Fig. 3 Clay undrained shear strength profiles (after Ong et  al., 2006a) Fig. 3 shows that at a distance of 1.5 m behind the wall, there is a significant reduction in the undrained shear strength after excavation for the top 1.8 m of soil, despite the maximum excavation depth is only 1.2 m. On the other hand, there is no noticeable reduction in the undrained shear strength at a distance of 3  To evaluate the undrained shear strength of the clay, T-bar penetrometer tests (Stewart & Randolph, 1991) were performed inflight at 1.5 m and 3 m behind the retaining wall. The surface of    m behind the wall. The insertion of T-bar penetrometer would inevitably push the soil towards the retaining wall. At 1.5 m behind the wall, the T-bar was over 4 bar diameters away from the wall and the image processing results revealed that the whole wall did not move during the T-bar tests, it can hence be deduced that the T-bar gives reasonably accurate measurements of the undrained shear strength profile. 5 CENTRIFUGE MODELLING  Fig. 4(a) and Fig. 4(b) show the test programs carried out for single piles and groups of piles respectively.  Test Wall a 1 P ile Plan Elevation Parameter (m) Pile head condition Wall condition  A refined limit equilibrium analysis, (Bolton and Powrie, 1987) based on permissible stress fields was used to calculate the required wall embedment below the dredged line. In the analysis, the active and passive zones switch at a pivot point so that the unpropped wall could satisfy the conditions of both moment and force equilibrium. This method is capable of giving a more reasonable prediction of wall failure than other widely used method such as  fixed earth support  method. From the analysis, a required wall embedment depth of 3.4 m is needed to maintain limit equilibrium of the retaining wall. To safeguard the wall against failure, a factor of safety of 2 is used and hence an embedment depth of 6.80 m below the dredged level. The factor of safety of the wall will be slightly enhanced due to the approximate 1m keying-in into the sand layer. 6 2-D FEM ANALYSIS & METHOD OF SMEARING OF 3D PILE PROPERTIES  x a a=1 x = 1.2 Free  a 2  x a a=3 x = 1.2 Free  Stable wall a 3 x a a=5 x = 1.2 Free  a 4  x a a=7 x = 1.2 Free  a 5  x a a=3 x = 1.8 Free Collapsed wall  Fig. 4(a) Test program carried out for single pile  Test num ber a 6 FP RP b Parameter (m) Pile head condition  P l an  Elevation  x  a b  a=3 b=5 x = 1.2  Free  a 7 b  FP RP FP RP  x  a b  PLAXIS version 8.2 is a commercial 2-D finite element code and is attempted hereinafter to back-analyse the results obtained from the centrifuge study. 6-noded triangular elements with each element containing 3 integration points are used for the finite element meshing. Mohr-Coulomb soil model using PLAXIS  Method B  type of analysis was performed.  Method B  type of analysis is one out of three types of analyses coined after the rigorous studies carried out by various institutions worldwide in the back-analysis of the tragic event of Nicoll Highway in Singapore on 20th April 2004. The authors acknowledged that other superior soil models could be used to replicate soil deformation more realistically, but in this particular paper, the more commonly used soil model i.e. Mohr-Coulomb is adopted for the present backanalysis study for simplicity.  Method B  involves the use of effective stress analysis with a cap on the cohesion values of the soft kaolin clay as measured by the in-flight T-bar penetrometer test results as shown in Fig. 3. This is to ensure that the cohesion values governed by the linearly elastic-perfectly plastic Mohr-Coulomb soil model are not over-predicted when compared to the actual non-linear soil behaviour. The corresponding clay undrained shear strength profiles before and after excavation were considered in the analysis. Ong et al. (2006a) reported that the undrained Young \'s modulus of the soft kaolin clay can be best represented by Eu  150 cu and relationship between soil E \' (effective) and Eu (total) is approximated as E \'  Eu/1.15. Poisson \'s ratio of 0.3 was used for typical effective stress analysis.  a=3 b=5 x = 1.2  Capped  2r  a 8 b c a 9 FP b RP FP FC RP RC FP MP RP FP MP RP x a b c a=3 b=5 c=7 x = 1.2 Capped  h  Assume all unit w length h  b  x  a b  a=3 b=5 x = 1.2  Capped  Uninstrumented pile Instrumented pile  Legend: FP: Front peripheral FC: Front centre RP: Rear peripheral  RC: Rear Centre MP: Middle Peripheral  3-D pile  2-D wall  Fig. 4(b) Test program carried out for a group of piles  Fig. 5 Method of smearing 3-D pile to an equivalent 2-D wall for use in 2-D FE analysis for the case of a single pile    In 2-D plane-strain FE analysis, it is not possible to model the 3-D nature of a pile. As such, the actual properties of a 3-D pile are  smeared  in the plane-strain direction to obtain the  equivalent  pile properties per m width. Effectively, the 3-D nature of a pile is now represented by an equivalent wall. This can be done by considering the contact areas of a cylinder and a rectangular wall as shown schematically in Fig. 5. For single pile: By assuming all unit length for parameters r, h, w and b (i.e. all with value 1), the unit contact areas of the cylinder (2**r*h) and the rectangular wall (2*h*w) are 2 and 2, respectively. This shows that the contact area of a 3-D cylinder is actually larger by  (=3.142) than that of a 2-D rectangular wall. This value is important in the case of a single pile as it represents the extent of influence imposed by the single pile. This concept is analogous to the  three pile diameters  rule of thumb theory for optimizing pile spacing for a group of piles. Therefore, for the equivalent pile diameter of 0.71m used in the centrifuge tests,  three pile diameters  would yield 2.13m of influence imposed by the single pile. Based on this understanding, the input properties of the corresponding equivalent wall are tabulated in Table 2. Table 2 Method of smearing 3-D pile to an equivalent 2-D wall for the case of a single pile Pile property 3-D pile 2-D equivalent (actual property) wall Axial rigidity Ep*Ap (Ep*Ap)/2.13 Bending rigidity Ep*Ip (Ep*Ip)/2.13 In general, the formulations used to obtain a 2-D equivalent wall for the case of a single pile can be written as: Axial rigidity: Bending rigidity: (EpAp)/3d (EpIp)/3d (3) (4)  For PLAXIS, the plate element presenting the equivalent wall is represented as a thin plate with a virtual thickness; hence mesh thickness is not important. Nevertheless, the weight of the wall in relation to the surrounding soils can be input when the equivalent wall is defined. However, if the FE analysis was to be carried out in SAGECRISP, the finite thickness of the mesh is important due to the transformation of cylindrical piles to an equivalent rectangular wall. Detailed comparison of this particular item and other prerequisites of FE modelling using PLAXIS and SAGE-CRISP have been described in detail by Ong et al. (2006b) and have been incorporated similarly in these analyses. The input properties of the corresponding equivalent wall, depending on the number of similar piles in the plane-strain direction are tabulated in Table 3. Table 3 Method of smearing 3-D pile to an equivalent 2-D wall for the case of a group of piles No. of piles in planePile property 2-D equivalent strain direction (pile wall spacing, s is 2m) 2 (Tests 7 & 8) Axial rigidity 2*(Ep*Ap)/2 3 (Test 9) Bending rigidity 3*(Ep*Ip)/(2*2) In general, the formulations used to obtain a 2-D equivalent wall for a group of piles in the plane-strain direction can be written as: Axial rigidity: Bending rigidity: n(EpAp)/[(n-1)(s)] n(EpIp)/[(n-1)(s)] (5) (6)  where n is the number of piles in the plane-strain direction and s is the centre-to-centre pile spacing between 2 piles in the planestrain direction. The remaining quantities remain similar as described above. Table 4 Method of converting response of equivalent wall to that of a pile for the case of a single pile Pile response Quantity per linear Conversion to m of wall as output quantity per pile by PLAXIS Bending moment BM in kNm/m BM*3d to obtain (BM) kNm Axial or shear F in kN/m F*3d to obtain forces (F) kN By converting 3-D piles to equivalent 2-D wall, the magnitudes of bending moment and forces (axial or shear) will be output as kNm/m and kN/m, respectively. In order to obtain the  actual  pile bending moment and forces, multiplication of smeared dimensions is necessary. Table 5 Method of converting response of equivalent wall to that of a pile for the case of a group of piles Pile response Quantity per linear Conversion to m of wall as output quantity per pile by PLAXIS Bending moment BM in kNm/m BM*[(n-1)*s]/n (BM) to obtain kNm Axial or shear F in kN/m F*[(n-1)*s]/n to forces (F) obtain kN  where Ep, Ap, Ip and d are the Young \'s modulus, sectional area, second moment of area and diameter of the pile, respectively. For a group of piles: For the case of a pile group, the 3-D single pile properties are multiplied by the number of similar piles in the plane-strain direction and smeared (divided) by the pile group centre-to-centre spacing, s, in the plane-strain direction as shown in Fig. 6.  s 2 r h  Assume all unit length  b  h  s  Fig. 6 Method of smearing 3-D pile to an equivalent 2-D wall for use in 2-D FE analysis for the case of a group of piles    Tables 4 and 5 show the methods of converting response of equivalent wall to that of a pile for a single pile and group of piles, respectively. Nevertheless, the resulted deflections and rotations remain similar. 7 NUMERICAL METHOD DEVELOPED AT NUS & INPUT PARAMETERS  Table 6 shows all the FE modelling and numerical back-analyses that have been carried out. In essence, all back-analyses carried out have been benchmarked against the well-established centrifuge tests results. It should be qualified that PLAXIS was not used to back-analyse Test 5, which involves a collapsed wall. 9 COMPARISON OF RESULTS  A simplified numerical model (Chow and Yong, 1996) is used to back-analyse the responses of the piles subjected to lateral soil movements. The numerical model is described in detail in Ong et al. (2006a) and summarised henceforth. In this model, the pile is modelled as a series of linear elastic beam elements and the soil is idealized using the modulus of subgrade reaction. This numerical method has been adopted successfully to back-analyse the centrifuge model test data on single pile subject to excavation-induced soil movements in sand (Leung et al. 2000). The numerical analysis requires the knowledge of the pile flexural rigidity, EpIp, the distribution of lateral soil stiffness, Kh, with depth, the limiting soil pressures, py, that acts on the pile and the lateral soil movement profile at the pile location. Measured free-field lateral soil movements from centrifuge tests are used as input values. With the application of py values, the nonlinear soil model can be simulated to a certain extent. The distribution of lateral soil stiffness with depth, Kh, is assumed to be related to the Young \'s modulus of the soil, Es, as follows (Chow and Yong 1996): Kh  Es (7)  9.1 Free-field Soil Movement The measured and predicted free-field (without the presence of pile) lateral soil movement profiles obtained from the centrifuge tests and 2-D FE modelling are shown in Fig. 7, respectively. The comparison shows that the observed lateral soil movement profiles are rather similar, except for the portion exceeding 6.5m depth, which in any case, will not seriously jeopardize the quality of the FE predictions.  0  2.5  Depth (m)  5  7.5  Distance of pile Centrifuge PLAXIS behind wall (m) (3-D) (2-D) 1 3  10  5 7  For lateral loading, Es of clay ranges from 150 cu to 400 cu (Poulos and Davis 1980). For the soft kaolin clay used in the present study, it is taken that (Ong et al., 2006a): Kh  Es = 150 cu (8)  12.5 0 20 40 60 80 Lateral soil movement (mm) 100 120  The following equation proposed by Poulos and Davis (1980) based on a modification of the work of Broms (1964) for the limiting soil pressure is used in the numerical model: py = 2(1+z/d)cu  9cu (9)  Fig. 7 Measured and predicted free-field lateral soil movement profiles obtained from the centrifuge tests and 2-D FE modeling 9.2 Single Pile and Pile Group ­ Stable Wall, but Piles Located Outside the Weakened Soil Wedge (Tests 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8 & 9) Fig. 3 shows that at a distance of 1.5 m behind the wall, there is a significant reduction in the undrained shear strength after excavation for the top 1.8 m of soil. On the other hand, there is no noticeable reduction in the undrained shear strength at a distance of 3 m behind the wall. As such, for piles located 3m or more behind the wall, it can be inferred that limiting soil pressures at the pile locations are not reached. Hence, no special considerations are necessary for piles located 3m or greater behind a stable wall. Fig. 8 shows the typical graphical output from 2-D FE analysis using PLAXIS. Fig. 9 shows the measured and predicted results from FE and centrifuge modelling for the case of a single pile, respectively. It is noted that the bending moment profiles show particularly good match compared to the deflection profiles, which are overpredicted. From Fig. 10, it is observed that over-prediction of free-head single pile maximum head deflection, on average is about 2.1 times of the measured values. The measured and predicted pile response from FE and centrifuge modelling for the case of pile groups are shown in Fig. 11. It is also noted that bending moment profiles show reasonable good match but the same cannot be said of the deflection profiles, which are over-predicted as shown in Fig. 12.  where z = depth and d = pile diameter. The use of limiting soil pressures enable the effect of soil flow around the pile to be considered in the analysis. This simplified model takes into account the flow of the soil past the pile when soil failure occurs. This effect cannot be simulated using a 2-D plane strain FE model, as described previously. To properly analyse this problem would, otherwise, require modelling the problem in 3-D which would require a considerable amount of computer resources and time. 8 BACK-ANALYSES PERFORMED  Table 6 Back-analyses performed  Test (see Fig. 4 for test layout) Single pile (stable wall): Tests 1, 2, 3 & 4 Single pile (collapsed wall): Test 5 Pile group (stable wall): Tests 6, 7, 8, & 9 3-D Centrifuge  2-D PLAXIS Numerical method (Chow & Yong, 1996)      Deflection ratio (2-D FEM over 3-D Centrifuge)  Pile distance from wall = 3m  3  2  1  (a)  0  0 1 2 Item 3 4  Fig. 10 Over-prediction of 2-D FE deflection over measured test results from centrifuge tests for the case of single pile In order to study the over-prediction of the FE pile deflection profiles further, it is assumed that the sand stiffness is increased by 2, 4 and 8 times as shown in Table 7 for Test 2 (pile is 3m behind wall), since the sand layer is to provide restraint to the toe of the equivalent wall. (b) Fig. 8 Typical graphical output of effect of soil movement on a single pile modelled as a 2-D wall, as demonstrated by (a) vectors and (b) contour shadings using 2-D FE analysis, PLAXIS For the fixed-head pile groups, it is observed that the magnitudes of over-prediction increases with increasing number of piles in a group. The larger is the group of piles, the greater is the over-prediction ratio. For example, over-prediction of about 6 times that of the measured magnitude of the centrifuge test results is observed for both Tests 8 and 9, which in each test involves 6 numbers of piles in a group.  0  Distance of pile Centrifuge PLAXIS behind wall (m) (3-D) (2-D) 3  Table 7 Back-analyses performed on sand stiffness for Test 2 Increase in sand Max predicted BM Max predicted stiffness (kNm / pile) deflection (mm) 1Esand (original 103.4 29.2 case) 2Esand 134.7 25.4 4Esand 8Esand 156.4 170.4 22.3 19.9  2.5 Dep th (m)  5 7  5  7.5  10  12.5 -40 0 40 80 Bending moment (kNm) 120 -10 0 10 20 Deflection (mm) 30  Fig. 9 Measured and predicted results from centrifuge tests and 2D FE modelling for the case of a single pile (Tests 2, 3 & 4)  The strength profile of the clay remains unchanged as the profile has been measured accurately using in-flight T-bar tests, whereas the strength profile for the sand is empirically calculated. It is observed that from Table 7, as the sand stiffness is increased in an exponential fashion, the resulted bending moment increase further, indicating further over-prediction of the centrifuge results, while the effect of toe embedment in the increasing stiffer sand layer is not very responsive as evidently shown in the slow rate of decrease in maximum pile head deflection, which is still far less than the measured value of about 13.3mm. The only improvement is that the soil movement profile in the sand layer is much reduced. The overall observations described above are useful because usually, pile maximum bending moment governs design. Once the pile capacity is catered for, the secondary requirement, i.e. pile serviceability or deflection can be further studied. As discussed before in the 2-D FE results, it has been found that overprediction of corresponding pile deflection occurs, which in turn reassures that the design based on pile capacity is valid and safe.  Pile distance from wall = 5m  Pile distance from wall = 7m    2 .5 D e p t h (m ) 5  Test 6  Deflection ratio (2-D FEM over 3-D Centrifuge)  6 5 4 3 2 1 0  0 1 2 Pile distance from wall = 5m 2-PG free  7 .5  Distance of pile Centrifuge PLAXIS behind wall (m) (3-D) (2-D)  10 12.5 0  3 5  Test 7  2 .5 D e p t h (m ) 5 7 .5 10 1 2 .5 0  Distance of pile Centrifuge PLAXIS behind wall (m) (3-D) (2-D) 3 5  Pile distance from wall = 3m 2-PG free  Pile distance from wall = 3m, 5m 4-PG fixed  3 Item  Pile distance from wall = 3m, 5m 6-PG, 2x3 fixed 4  1 3 5 7  0  Test 8  2 .5 D e p t h (m ) 5  Fig. 12 Over-prediction of 2-D FE deflection over measured test results from centrifuge tests for the case of a group of piles  0  2 .5  7 .5 10 12.5 0  Distance of pile Centrifuge PLAXIS behind wall (m) (3-D) (2-D)  D e p t h (m )  3 5 7  5  7 .5  BackDistance of pile Measured analysed Revised from wall (m)  10  Pile distance from wall = 3m, 5m, 7m 6-PG, 3x2 fixed 5  N/A  Test 9  2 .5 D e p t h (m ) 5 7 .5 10 1 2 .5 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Bending moment (kNm) Deflection (mm)  Distance of pile Centrifuge PLAXIS behind wall (m) (3-D) (2-D) 3 (centre) 3 (peripheral) 5 (centre) 5 (peripheral)  1 2 .5 0 75 150 225 300 0 10 20 30 Pile deflection (mm) 40  Bending moment (kNm)  Fig. 13 Comparison of measured and back-analysed single pile responses using the NUS numerical method (Tests 1, 2, 3 & 4) (Ong et al., 2006a)  0 2.5  Fig. 11 Measured and predicted results from centrifuge tests and 2-D FE modelling for the case of a group of piles (Tests 6, 7, 8 & 9) In order to demonstrate the reliability of the centrifuge test results, back-analyses using the well-calibrated NUS numerical method are employed. By inputting all relevant parameters described before, the well-predicted single pile bending moment and deflection profiles are shown in Fig. 13 and described in more detail in Ong et al. (2006a). Similarly, the well-predicted pile group bending moment and deflection profiles are shown in Figs. 14 and 15 and described in more detail in Ong (2004).  D epth (m)  5 7.5 10 12.5 -40 -20 0 20 40 -1  Distance from wall Measured Predicted using preexcavation soil strength Peripheral 3m 5m 7m  Bending moment (kNm)  0 1 2 Deflection (mm)  3  (a)  (b)  Fig. 14 Comparison of measured and back-analysed pile group (a) bending moment and (b) deflection profiles for 2x3 pile group using the NUS numerical method (Ong, 2004)    0 2.5 D epth (m) 5 7.5  Centre Peripheral 3m 5m  hind this retaining wall is effectively screening it from direct influence of actual 3-D soil movements. As such, 2-D FE modelling is not suitable for use and the NUS numerical method is adopted in the back-analysis, which is described in detail herein forth. (i)  Distance from wall Measured Pred icted using preexca vation soil strength 3m 5m  Attempt #1: Pre-excavation undrained shear strength  10 12.5 -40 -20 0 20 40 -1 0  Bending moment (kNm)  1 2 Deflection (mm)  3  4  (a)  (b)  As a first attempt, the pre-excavation undrained shear strength profile at the pile location of 3 m behind the wall is used as the input soil strength parameters in the back-analyses. The normalized limiting soil pressure coefficient Pn is defined as the ratio of limiting soil pressure py and cu to differentiate it from the case of a laterally-loaded pile where K is used. The following Pn values (Poulos and Davis 1980) are adopted in the back-analysis: Pn = py/cu = 2(1+z/d)  9 (10)  Fig. 15 Comparison of measured and back-analysed pile group (a) bending moment and (b) deflection profiles for 3x2 pile group using the NUS numerical method (Ong, 2004) 9.3 Single Pile ­ Stable Wall, but Piles Located Within the Weakened Soil Wedge (Test 1) For Test 1 with the pile located 1 m behind the wall, the analysed pile maximum bending moment using the NUS numerical method is about 25% higher than the measured values if the preexcavation undrained shear strength values are used as shown in Fig. 13. Fig. 3 reveals that after excavation, the soil within 1.5 m behind the wall has experienced a substantial reduction in the undrained shear strength for the top 1.8 m depth of soil, despite the maximum excavation depth is only 1.2 m. This reduction could be attributed to stress relief in the soil and water seepage from the retained side to the excavated side of the wall (Ong et al., 2006a). Fig. 3 also shows that soil at 3 m or beyond behind the wall has not weakened due to the excavation. Test 1 results were reanalyzed using the post-excavation undrained shear strength profile obtained at 1.5 m from the wall as shown in Fig. 3. This yields a relatively smaller limiting soil pressure profile in the upper soil region to better reflect the situation of large strain soil deformation. The revised back-analysed pile bending moment and deflection profiles for Test 1 are also shown in Fig. 13. It is evident that the revised back-analysed pile responses give a substantially better agreement with the measured pile responses. It is hence suggested that the post-excavation undrained shear strength, which reflects the correct soil strength due to the stress relief resulting from the excavation, should be employed in the back-analysis if the pile is located within 2 m from the wall. Such implication is studied further herein forth. 9.4 Single Pile ­ Collapse Wall (Test 5) In order to explicitly study the importance of soil limiting pressures in the case of large strain soil deformation, Test 5 representing a single pile embedded in 12.5 m thick clay behind a floating wall, was performed. 2-D FE modelling could not be used to model this case involving a collapsed wall because of this simple reason: the actual 3-D pile is modelled as an equivalent wall in the 2-D FE analysis, thus preventing the true phenomenon where soil can fail and flow around and between the piles for the cases of a single pile and a group of piles, respectively. Thus, if this particular case is modelled in a 2-D FE analysis, one will find that the retaining wall will not collapse as the equivalent wall be-  where z is the depth below the ground and d is the pile diameter. As Pn is analogous to K, the symbols Pn and K may be used interchangeably in this paper.  0  Excavation Measured Backdepth (m) analysed  1.0  2  1.2 1.4 1.6  4 Depth (m)  1.8  6  Limit pressure envelope  8  10  12 -300 -200 -100 0 100 Soil pressure (kPa) 200 300  Fig. 16 Measured soil pressures in relation to the calculated and specified limit pressure envelope based on pre-excavation undrained shear strength If Eq. (10) is used directly with pre-excavation undrained shear strength, the corresponding soil limiting pressure envelope is as shown in Fig. 16. The measured soil pressures acting on the pile obtained from centrifuge Test 5 is also shown on the similar plot using dashed lines. One can see that if the soil pressure envelope is not properly specified to consider soil failure and thus soil flowing past the pile, large over-prediction can be expected as the measured soil pressures is only a small fraction of that calculated had the pre-excavation undrained shear strength is used to specify the limiting soil pressure envelope. Subsequently, the back-analysed and measured pile responses for Test 5 plotted in Fig. 17, reveal that the back-analysed pile bending moments are much larger than the measured values, as expected from the observations made from Fig. 16. The above findings are similar to those established in Test 1 described above. This confirms that the use of pre-excavation undrained shear strength profiles in the numerical model by adopting conventional limit soil pressures for laterally loaded piles would over-predict the induced pile bending moments especially when the magnitude of lateral soil movement is large.    0  Measured Back-analysed values pre-excavation undrained shear strength post-excavation undrained shear strength pre-excavation undrained shear strength with backanalysed Pn value  0  2  Excavation Measured depth (m)  1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8  2.5 D e p th (m)  5  7.5  Depth (m)  4  6  10  (a)  12.5 0 100 200 300 400 500 0 20  (b)  40 60 80 Deflection (mm) 100 120  8  Bending moment (kNm)  10 -60 - 40 -20 0 Soi l pressure (kPa) 20  Fig. 17 Comparison of measured and back-analysed pile (a) bending moment and (b) deflection profiles for Test 5 at excavation depth of 1.4 m (after Leung et al., 2006) (ii) Attempt #2: Post-excavation undrained shear strength The second attempt in the back-analyses is to employ the postexcavation undrained shear strength profiles as the input soil strength values as measured in Fig. 3. The back-analysed pile bending moment and deflection using the post-excavation strength profiles for Test 5 also are shown in Fig. 17. It is evident that the agreement between the back-analysed and measured pile bending moments are considerably better. However, the backanalysed pile deflections are lower than the measured values. The under-prediction of pile deflection is probably due to the presence of tension cracks and the formation of active failure wedge in the tests which could not be modelled in the numerical analysis (Leung et al., 2006). The maximum soil pressures acting on the pile is likely to be reached upon large soil movements. At this juncture, it is worthwhile to evaluate the actual magnitudes of soil pressures acting on the pile. The method of deriving the soil pressure profiles is the same used in (Ong et al. 2006a). As an example, Fig. 18 shows the soil pressure profiles of Test 5 (enlarged from Fig. 16) that are deduced from the corresponding bending moment profiles. It is evident that the limiting soil pressures py along the upper portion of the pile have been reached at an excavation depth of 1.2 m. Thereafter, the soil pressures do not increase further with increasing excavation depth. The above finding illustrates that the reduction of Pn from a value of 9 for conventional laterally loaded piles to a lower value of 6 for piles subject to excavation-induced soil movements is attributed to the reduction in the undrained shear strength upon excavation. As the NUS numerical model facilitates the input of limiting soil pressures, the third attempt is useful in studying the effect of pile behaviour subject to large strain soil deformation. It involves employing the pre-excavation undrained shear strength profiles but adopting the envelope of Pn values deduced from Fig. 19(b). The back-analysed and measured pile bending moments and deflections for Test 5 are compared and shown in Fig. 17. The fairly close agreement between the back-analysed and measured pile responses reveal that the use of pre-excavation undrained shear strength with reduced limiting soil pressures would provide reasonably good prediction of pile bending moment. The limiting soil pressures on the pile are reached upon large soil movements.  Fig. 18 Limiting soil pressure deduced from pile bending moments (Test 5) (Ong et al., 2006a) (iii) Attempt #3: Pre-excavation undrained shear strength with back-analysed limiting soil pressure In most practical situations or in design, the post-excavation undrained shear strength profiles are not available. In view of this, the back-analyzed Pn (or K) values with respect to the preexcavation undrained shear strength profile is also determined and shown in Fig. 19(b). As expected, the back-analyzed Pn values are much lower than the theoretical Pn values shown in Fig. 19(a). An envelope of limiting Pn values is hence plotted and indicated by the bold dash line in Fig. 19(b). The maximum backanalyzed Pn value is about 6.  0  2  D ep th  4  6  Theoretical K envelope by Broms Simplified envelope  8  10 -4 0  (a)  4 K=py/cu 8 12 -4 0  (b)  4 K=py/cu 8 12  Fig. 19 Variation of K or Pn value with depth using (a) postexcavation and (b) pre-excavation undrained shear strength (Leung et al., 2006) It should also be noted that the calculations obtained using the post-excavation undrained shear strength profile and preexcavation undrained shear strength profile with reduced Pn values are identical. This is as expected as the 2 approaches essentially use the same back-analyzed limiting soil pressures. It can be concluded from the above back-analyses that the commonly adopted Pn value of 9 is applicable when postexcavation undrained shear strength profile is used. However, if only pre-excavation undrained shear strength profiles are avail-    able, an appropriate reduction in the Pn value should be adopted in order to obtain a more accurate prediction of pile bending moment when subjected to large soil movements. In the present study, the maximum normalized limiting soil pressure/undrained shear strength ratio is established to be about 6. 10 SUGGESTED DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS AND METHODOLOGY FOR PILE SUBJECTED TO LATERAL SOIL MOVEMENT Based on the understanding of the present study, the following practical design methodology can be adopted in the design of piles subject to lateral soil movements: (i) Quality soil investigation works have to be carried out to obtain reliable and realistic undrained shear strength profiles. Preferably, continuous profiling of soft soil undrained shear strength by means of in-situ testing e.g. cone penetrometer test (CPT) would be most ideal. (ii) Realistic free-field soil movements (without the presence of piles) can be obtained via field measurements using inclinometers, 2-D finite element analysis and centrifuge modelling of the problem in hand. (iii) If more conservative pile design can be tolerated, 2-D FE analysis could be performed for cases involving relatively small strain soil deformation [see item (vi) below], where soil flowing around and past the pile will not occur. Effect of smearing the actual properties of a pile as outlined in Section 6 can be adopted. (iv) Applications of Eqs. (8) and (10) for the calculations of soil modulus of subgrade reaction ( springs ) and limiting soil pressure values, respectively, is for typical 1-D pile software. (v) For large-strain soil deformation, e.g. landslide stabilizing piles and piles embedded in riverbank with limiting stability, limiting soil pressure is an important consideration. Therefore, methodology as adopted in Attempt #3 in preceding section (Pn = 6cu if cu is obtained before stress relief occurs and Pn = 9cu if cu is obtained after stress relief has occurred within the zone of influence. Some prior knowledge and engineering judgment may be necessary. Thus, software that permits the input of limiting soil pressures can greatly help the computation of such pile responses. (vi) However, in most cases where relatively smaller strain soil deformation are involved, e.g. piles installed close to a bridge abutment or behind a permanent and rigid retaining wall, the more common commercially available software such as ALP (Analysis of Laterally Loaded Piles) by OASYS, which requires the input of soil modulus of subgrade reaction (or  springs ), can be readily used. 11 CONCLUSIONS Centrifuge model tests have been carried out to investigate the effects of excavation-induced soil movements on single piles and pile groups adjacent to an unstrutted excavation in clay. Computer modelling using (i) 2-D FE analysis by means of smearing the properties of an actual pile to those of an equivalent wall, as well as analysis using (ii) an existing numerical method developed at NUS, whereby the pile is modelled as a series of linear  elastic beam and the soil idealized using the modulus of subgrade reaction, have been employed to back-analyse the induced pile bending moment and deflection as observed by the centrifuge tests. Findings that are relevant to engineering practice are summarized as follows: (1) Smearing of pile properties is a common method used in practice to model an actual pile as an equivalent wall in 2-D FE analysis. Otherwise, 3-D FE analysis, which is more complicated, expensive and time-consuming, may be necessary. From the present study, 2-D FE analysis have been demonstrated to produce more conservative results (bending moment and deflection) than those obtained from the welldocumented centrifuge tests, which perhaps are the closest simulations possible to a realistic real-life soil-structure interaction problem. (2) Owing to stress relief, it should be observed that postexcavation undrained shear strength has been significantly weakened within the influence triangular wedge located approximately at distance 1.25 times the depth of excavation for the case of a stable wall. (3) Behind an unstable retaining wall that subsequently collapsed, the extent of significant soil deformation zone extends to approximately twice the excavation depth behind the wall. Owing to stress relief during excavation, the postexcavation undrained shear strength within this zone is much lower than the pre-excavation undrained shear strength. (4) The induced bending moment and deflection on a pile located at 1 m (or 0.8 times excavation depth) behind the wall is significant as the soil has been very much weakened. The induced pile responses reduce considerably with increasing distance between the pile and the wall as the proportion of pile length within the significant soil deformation zone reduces. (5) The induced pile bending moment and deflection can be predicted reasonably well using an existing numerical method for piles located at 3m, 5m and 7m (or >2.5 times the excavation depth) behind the wall. In these cases, the free-field soil movement profile at the pile location and the pre-excavation undrained shear strength, which does not change due to the excavation, are employed in the back-analysis. (6) For a pile located within the zone of reduced undrained shear strength, the back-analysed and measured pile bending moments are in good agreement when the post-excavation undrained shear strength profile is used in the calculation of the limiting soil pressures which serve as subsequent input into the back-analysis. However, if the original preexcavation shear strength profile is used, the back-analysed maximum pile bending moment is about 25% higher than the measured value. (7) The conventionally adopted normalized limiting soil pressure/undrained shear strength of 9 (Poulos and Davis 1980) is applicable when post-excavation shear strength is used. In such case the back-analysed and measured induced pile bending moments are in reasonably good agreement. (8) If the pre-excavation undrained shear strength is the only soil strength parameter available as in most practical cases, an appropriate reduction for the normalized limiting soil pressure coefficient, Pn needs to be applied in the numerical analysis in order that the induced pile bending moment could    be reasonably well- predicted. The results of the present study reveals that the limiting soil pressure/undrained shear strength ratio for piles subject to lateral soil movement is lower than that adopted for conventionally laterally loaded pile. In the present study, the ratio is established to be about 6.  REFERENCES Bolton, M.D, Gui, M.W. and Phillips, R. (1993).  Review of miniature soil probes for model tests . Proceedings of 13th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference, Singapore, pp. 85-90. Bolton, M. D. and Powrie, W. (1987).  The collapse of diaphragm walls retaining clay.  Geotechnique, Vol. 37, No. 3, pp. 335-353. Broms, B. B. (1964).  Lateral resistance of piles in cohesive soils.  Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 90, No. SM2, pp. 27-63. Chow, Y. K. and Yong, K. Y. (1996).  Analysis of piles subject to lateral soil movements.  Journal of The Institution of Engineers Singapore, Vol. 36, No. 2, pp. 43-49. Leung, C. F., Chow, Y. K. and Shen, R. F. (2000).  Behaviour of pile subject to excavation-induced soil movement.  Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 126, No. 11, pp. 947-954. Leung, C.F., Ong, D.E.L. and Chow, Y.K. (2006).  Pile behaviour due to excavation-induced soil movement in clay: II: Collapsed wall . Journal of Geoenvironmental and Geotechnical Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), Vol. 132, No. 1, pp. 45-53.  Lee, F.H., Tan, T.S., Leung, C.F., Yong, K.Y., Karunaratne, G.P. and Lee, S.L. (1991).  Development of geotechnical centrifuge facility at National University of Singapore , Proceedings of International Conference Centrifuge 91, Boulder, pp. 11-17. Ong, D.E.L., Leung, C.F. and Chow, Y.K. (2003).  Timedependent pile behaviour due to excavation-induced soil movement in clay . Proc. 12th Pan-American Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, U.S.A., Vol. 2, pp. 2035-2040. Ong, D.E.L. (2004).  Pile behaviour subject to excavationinduced soil movement in clay . Ph.D dissertation, National University of Singapore. Ong, D.E.L., Leung, C.F. and Chow, Y.K. (2004).  Pile behaviour behind a collapsed wall . Proc. International Conference on Structural and Foundation Failures, Singapore, pp. 410-421. Ong, D.E.L., Leung, C.F. and Chow, Y.K. (2006a).  Pile behaviour due to excavation-induced soil movement in clay: I: Stable wall . Journal of Geoenvironmental and Geotechnical Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), Vol. 132, No. 1, pp. 36-44. Ong, D.E.L., Yang, D.Q., and Phang, S.K. (2006b).  Comparison of finite element modelling of a deep excavation using SAGE-CRISP and PLAXIS . Int. Conf. on Deep Excavations, 28-30 June 2006, Singapore. Poulos, H. G. and Davis, E. H. (1980). Pile foundation analysis and design. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Stewart, D. P., and Randolph, M. F. (1991).  A new site investigation tool for the centrifuge.  Proc. Int. Conf. Centrifuge 91, H.Y. Ko and F. McLean, eds., Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 521-538.    ",701);arrFiles[81]=new Array(83,"http://www.juruterajasa.com/resources/Dominic ASCE Collapse Wall.pdf","2005-12-16","Dominic ASCE Collapse Wall.pdf","","","Pile Behavior Due to Excavation-Induced Soil Movement in Clay. II: Collapsed Wall  C. F. Leung1; D. E. L. Ong2; and Y. K. Chow3  Abstract: A series of centrifuge model tests has been conducted to investigate the behavior of a single pile behind a retaining wall that eventually fails due to soil excavation in front of the wall. All the piles are located at 3 m behind the wall where the soil experiences large shear strain 2 % . The induced bending moment and deflection on the pile as well as the soil and wall movements are monitored at regular intervals throughout the tests. It is found that the pile performance depends greatly on the degree of wall instability. After a critical excavation depth, active wedge slip plane and tension cracks developed in the vicinity of the pile. The limiting soil pressure profile deduced from the measured maximum induced pile bending moment profile is established to be much lower than that of a conventional laterally loaded pile. Using the measured soil movements at the pile location as the input data, the calculated pile bending moment obtained using an existing numerical model generally show fair agreement with the measured values when the back-analyzed limiting soil pressures acting on the pile are employed in the back-analysis. The practical implications of the findings are discussed in the paper. DOI: 10.1061/ ASCE 1090-0241 2006 132:1 45 CE Database subject headings: Bending moments; Centrifuge model; Clays; Deflection; Excavation; Failures; Soil pressure; Soil deformation; Retaining walls.  Introduction  In the companion paper Ong et al. 2005 , a centrifuge model study has been carried out to investigate the behavior of a single pile due to excavation-induced soil movement behind a stable retaining wall in clay. Owing to time-dependent postexcavation soil and wall movements, the induced bending moment and deflection on the pile were noted to increase with time after the completion of excavation. The above findings are generally applicable to most practical cases whereby the retaining wall remains stable upon soil excavation. However, a good number of failures have been reported for example, Finno et al. 1991 whereby the collapse of the retaining wall has caused severe damage to adjacent piles. It has been established that the pile behavior behind a stable wall in sand could be very different from that behind a collapsed wall Leung et al. 2000 . In the present study, a series of centrifuge model tests has been performed to investigate the pile behavior behind a collapsed retaining wall in clay. The test results in terms of development of induced pile bending moments and  Associate Professor, Centre for Soft Ground Engineering, Civil Engineering Dept., National Univ. of Singapore, Singapore, 117576. E-mail: cvelcf@nus.edu.sg 2 Geotechnical Engineer, Civil & Transportation Division, CPG Consultants Pte. Ltd., Singapore, 307685. E-mail: dominic.ong@ cpgcorp.com.sg 3 Professor, Centre for Soft Ground Engineering, Civil Engineering Dept., National Univ. of Singapore, Singapore, 117576. E-mail: cvechow@nus.edu.sg Note. Discussion open until June 1, 2006. Separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers. To extend the closing date by one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on March 17, 2004; approved on April 12, 2005. This paper is part of the Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 132, No. 1, January 1, 2006. ©ASCE, ISSN 1090-0241/2006/145­53/ 25.00.  1  deflections with excavation depth and time, in particular on the ratio of limiting soil pressure/undrained shear strength along the pile, are reported in this paper.  Centrifuge Model Test Series  The experimental setup and procedure of the present study are essentially the same as those employed in the stable wall study Ong et al. 2005 . All the tests were conducted at 50g on the National University of Singapore geotechnical centrifuge. In subsequent discussions, all the test parameters and results are presented in prototype scale. Three centrifuge model tests were carried out, namely, Tests 5, 6, and 7. In all the tests, the pile is located 3 m behind the retaining wall. In order to induce significantly large wall movement upon excavation, either the soil excavation depth and/or the height of the soft clay is increased as compared to the earlier stable wall study Ong et al. 2005 . Identical to the early tests, an appropriate portion of the soil in front of the model wall was removed at 1g and replaced by a latex bag containing zinc chloride ZnCl2 having the same density and height as the removed soil. During a centrifuge test, in-flight soil excavation is simulated by gradually draining ZnCl2 from the latex bag. Fig. 1 shows a sketch of the test configurations and parameters of the three tests as well as those of Test 2 from the stable wall study Ong et al. 2005 . By comparing the factor of safety against wall failure determined using the limit equilibrium analysis Bolton and Powrie 1987 , the retaining wall in Test 5 can be considered as marginally stable, the wall in Test 6 as unstable collapsed wall , and the wall in Test 7 as very unstable resulting in a totally collapsed wall. It should be noted that the present study involves a relatively simple case of a single free-head pile behind a retaining wall. The present study aims to provide a basic understanding of the pile performance behind a collapsed wall involving the simplest case  JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2006 / 45    Fig. 1. Configuration and test parameters of Tests 5, 6, and 7, as well as those of Test 2 from Ong et al. 2005  Fig. 3. Measured lateral wall movement profiles during excavation for a Test 2, b Test 5, c Test 6, and d Test 7  first. In practice, the pile and loading conditions can be quite different that involve pile group, pile cap, ground beams, or wall with multiple strut supports. Such complex cases will be the subject of further studies. Fig. 2 shows the undrained shear strength profile of the clay obtained from a T-bar penetrometer test conducted in-flight at the pile location 3 m behind the wall prior to and after soil excavation for Test 6. It is evident that an overconsolidated crust exists at the top of the clay layer and a significant reduction in the undrained shear strength is observed for the top 3 m of the clay after excavation. As discussed in the companion paper Ong et al. 2005 , the insertion of the T-bar penetrometer would inevitably push the soil towards the retaining wall. As there was no wall movement observed during the T-bar tests, it can be deduced that the T-bar gives reasonably sound measurements of undrained shear strength profiles.  Wall and Soil Deformations  The wall deflection profiles at different times for Tests 2, 5, 6, and 7 are shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 3 b reveals that for Test 5, the wall deflection within the underlying sand layer is relatively small, illustrating the  key-in  effect of the wall in the underlying dense sand layer. The maximum wall defection of 0.5 m is 2.5 times that of 0.2 m recorded for Test 2. In Test 6, the wall is essentially  floating  entirely in the soft clay layer Fig. 1 c and the whole wall tilts about the wall toe, as shown in Fig. 3 c . Test 7 involves the most severe case with the same wall embedment condition as that of Test 5 but a significantly larger excavation depth of 2.8 m. The wall key-in effect in the dense sand layer disappears when the excavation depth exceeds 1.4 m Fig. 3 d resulting in a massive maximum wall deflection of 2.7 m at the ground level. Fig. 3 shows that at the same excavation depth of 1.2 m, the wall deflection profile obtained from Test 7 is significantly larger than that of Test 5 which is in turn considerably larger than that of Test 2. This observation differs from the expected situation in the field whereby for the same soil and wall conditions, the wall deflection is expected to be very similar for the same excavation depth. The differences in the wall deflection profile in the three tests are attributed to the use of ZnCl2 to simulate the soil excavation in-flight. In Test 2, the ZnCl2 in the latex bag has been completely drained upon reaching the maximum excavation depth of 1.2 m. When the excavation depth reaches 1.2 m in Test 5, there is 0.6-m high ZnCl2 remaining in the latex bag while in Test 7, there is 1.6 m of ZnCl2 left in the bag. As the ZnCl2 below 1.2-m depth does not offer any shear resistance to the moving wall, the wall deflection is hence the largest in Test 7, followed by Test 5 and then Test 2. The writers believe that while such a shortcoming would cause discrepancies in the wall and pile responses in the intermediate excavation stages for the three tests,  Fig. 2. Measured undrained shear strength profiles at 3 m behind retaining wall for Test 6  46 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2006    ig. 4. Measured surface settlement troughs behind wall during and after excavation for a Test 2, b Test 5, c Test 6, and d Test 7  the results obtained at the maximum excavation depth for each test are valid and still useful for the understanding of pile responses behind a collapsed retaining wall. In all tests, the tilted wall causes the clay behind the wall to settle and the ground settlement continues to increase over time after the completion of excavation, as shown in Fig. 4. As the wall head in Test 7 has deflected by a massive 2.7 m, the ground surface settlements behind the wall are hence very large, with an observed maximum settlement of almost 1.6 m at 1.5 m behind the wall. For the stable and marginally stable wall cases Figs. 4 a and b , the gradient of the ground surface settlement trough close to the wall is not as significant as those observed for the collapsed wall cases Figs. 4 c and d . This can be attributed to the formation of failure wedge behind the wall for the latter cases.  Fig. 6. Development of maximum induced pile a head deflection and b bending moment during and after excavation  Pile Responses  Fig. 5 shows the development of bending moment profiles with excavation depth and time for Tests 2, 5, 6, and 7. Owing to differences in the excavation depth and wall stability, the elevation of maximum bending moment varies with the highest elevation at 7.5 m depth for the stable wall case to the lowest elevation of 9 m depth for the totally collapsed wall case. Fig. 6 shows the variation of induced pile head deflection and maximum pile bending moment with logarithmic of time. The induced pile responses for the marginally stable wall Test 5 are similar to that of the stable wall Test 2 except the magnitudes of the former are considerably larger due to a greater excavation depth. However, the induced pile responses for the two collapsed walls are significantly different. Fig. 6 b shows that the maximum induced pile bending moment for Test 6 reaches a peak value of 238 kN · m at an excavation depth of 1.4 m, and then reduces to 185 kN · m at the maximum excavation depth of 1.8 m before further reducing to 80 kN · m after a postexcavation period of about 10 months. However, the pile head deflection Fig. 6 a  Fig. 5. Measured pile bending moment profiles during excavation for a F Test 2, b Test 5, c Test 6, and d Test 7  JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2006 / 47    Fig. 7. Resultant soil movements at the end of excavation: a Test 5 and b Test 6  remains practically unchanged for some time after the wall collapse. In Test 7 with a totally collapsed wall, the maximum induced pile bending moment remains fairly constant after reaching its first peak value at an excavation depth of 1.2 m and increases again once the excavation depth exceeds 2 m, as shown in Fig. 6 b . The pile head deflection over time shows a similar trend as the pile bending moment. Despite a greater excavation depth, the pile head deflection observed in Test 7 is less than that in Test 6 Fig. 6 a . This observation suggests that the underlying dense sand layer has restrained the lower part of the pile from severe movement and rotation during and after the wall collapse.  soil behind the wall, as shown in Fig. 7 b . A photograph of the top view of the ground surface after Test 6 is shown in Fig. 8. For clarity, the cracks on the ground surface are identified and marked on the figure. By comparing the cracks with the fissures observed around the pile in the stable wall study Ong et al. 2005 , it is evident that the soil movements around the pile behind a collapsed wall are far more severe. This illustrates that the threedimensional nature of the pile behavior is more significant behind a collapsed wall with an observation somewhat similar to the characteristic mesh of the deformed soil on a laterally loaded pile Randolph and Houlsby 1984 . Further inspection of the ground surface reveals that the top part of the cracks in between the pile  Evaluation of Pile Responses Due to Soil Movement  During the tests, photographs of soil markers were taken through the perspex window of the model container using a high resolution camera. Figs. 7 a and b show the photographs of side elevation of the experiment at the maximum excavation depth for Tests 5 and 6, respectively. By comparing the photographs against those prior to excavation using commercial computer software OPTIMAS, the soil movement vectors can be obtained and are also shown in Fig. 7. It is noted that the soil deformation patterns for Test 5 are similar to those observed for Test 2 Ong et al. 2005 . For Test 6 involving a collapsed wall, massive soil movements are detected and tension cracks can clearly be seen in the  Fig. 8. Photograph of top of ground surface after end of Test 6  48 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2006    Fig. 9. Resultant soil movements at the end of excavation for Test 7  and the wall have been covered up by clay suggesting a  soil flow  has taken place at the location. Fig. 9 shows a photograph of the side elevation of the experiment at the maximum excavation depth for Test 7. From the series of photographs taken at different periods, two stages of soil failure are noted. The first stage involves the development of tension cracks in front of the pile, similar to the observations described earlier for Test 6. It is believed that the tension cracks that develop in front of the pile could have reduced the soil­pile interface contact and this leads to a reduction in the transmission of full soil pressures onto the pile. Identical to the stable wall study Ong et al. 2005 , the ground water table remains above the ground level throughout the tests and the tension cracks are hence flooded with water. Fig. 6 reveals that for Test 7, the pile head deflection and bending moment remain fairly constant between 1.2 and 2 m excavation depths. It is postulated that during this stage, the increase in soil pressure due to increasing soil movement on the pile arising from increasing excavation depth is just about balanced by the reduction in soil pressure on the pile due to the development of tension cracks. Upon further soil excavation, the second failure stage commences as the tension cracks further propagate and the active failure wedge is then prominently developed resulting in very large soil movement in front of the pile. With this, the soil mass behind the pile starts to press onto the pile again and induces further deflections and bending moments on the pile. After the wall has completely collapsed, the entire failure wedge slides and separates itself from the remaining soil mass, resulting in a significant reduction in the induced pile bending moment and deflection. The vectors of significant soil movements in front and behind the retaining wall at the end of excavation for Test 7 are also shown in Fig. 9. The formation of failure wedge in front of the pile is clearly evident as denoted by the longer soil movement vectors. As expected, the soil heaves in front of the wall upon wall collapse. It is evident from Figs. 7 and 9 that for Tests 5, 6, and 7, there are significant soil movements behind the wall extending to and beyond the pile location. Following the same concept of shear strain used in the companion paper Ong et al. 2005 , it can be established that the soils at the pile location in the three tests all experience large shear strain 2 % . The free-field lateral soil movement profiles at the pile location can be derived from high resolution photographs of soil markers taken during the tests. The variations of pile head deflection and free-field soil movement at different depths at the pile location with time are shown in Fig. 10. For Test 5 involving a marginally stable wall, the soil  starts to move ahead of the pile when the excavation depth exceeds 0.9 m. For Tests 6 and 7 involving collapsed walls, the soil starts to move ahead of the pile at a relatively shallow excavation depth of 0.6 m, after which the difference between the soil and pile movements becomes more significant with increasing excavation depth. When the excavation depth exceeds about 1.0 m, relatively large free-field soil flow is observed by examining the photographs taken during the tests. This observation is consistent with the soil  flow  phenomenon observed in Fig. 8. The devel-  Fig. 10. Variations of free-field soil movement at 3 m from wall and pile head deflection with excavation depth for a Test 5, b Test 6, and c Test 7  JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2006 / 49    Fig. 12. Measured lateral soil movement profiles for Tests 6 and 7 Fig. 11. a Measured lateral soil movement profiles and calculated pile deflection profile for Test 5 b  Pn = p y/cu = 2 1 + z/d  9  2  opment of tension cracks is thought to have prevented the transmission of additional soil pressures onto the pile and hence the drop in pile bending moment as noted in Fig. 6 b . The pile deflection profile can be deduced from the pile bending moment profile using the same method employed for the stable wall study Ong et al. 2005 . Figs. 11 a and b show a comparison of lateral soil movement and pile deflection profiles, respectively, for Test 5. As the pile is significantly stiffer than the soil, the magnitude of pile deflections is much smaller than the corresponding soil movements. In addition, the two profiles are markedly different when the pile behaves as a rigid body having similar angle of rotation for the upper portion of the pile that is embedded in clay and very little deflection for the lower portion of pile that is embedded in the stiff sand layer. On the other hand, the lateral soil movements do not follow a smooth profile as the development of soil movements follows fairly closely with the propagation of the active wedge behind the wall due to increasing excavation depth.  where z is the depth below the ground and d is the pile diameter or width. Fig. 13 shows a comparison of the measured and calculated maximum induced pile bending moments and pile head deflection for Test 5. The maximum induced pile bending moment occurs at about 7.5 m depth, as shown in Fig. 5 b . There is a reasonably close agreement between the measured and calculated pile responses up to an excavation depth of about 1.8 m, after which the calculated pile bending moments and deflections overestimate the pile responses significantly when compared to the measured values. The calculated and measured pile responses for Test 6 measured peak pile responses at 1.4 m excavation depth and Test 7  Numerical Back-Analyses  A numerical model Chow and Yong 1996 is used to backanalyze the centrifuge model test results in the present study. Similar to the stable wall study Ong et al. 2005 , the measured free-field soil movement profiles at the pile location for Tests 5, 6, and 7 shown in Figs. 11 a and 12 are used as the input soil movements. The soil lateral stiffness, Kh, is related to undrained shear strength cu as Ong et al. 2005 K  h  Es = 150cu  1  Preexcavation Undrained Shear Strength As a first attempt, the preexcavation undrained shear strength profile at the pile location of 3 m behind the wall is used as the input soil strength parameters in the back-analyses. The normalized limiting soil pressure coefficient Pn is defined as the ratio of limiting soil pressure py and cu. The following equation proposed by Poulos and Davis 1980 based on a modification of the work by Broms 1964 for the limiting soil pressure is used in the numerical model  Fig. 13. Variation of measured and calculated a bending moment and b pile head deflection with excavation depth for Test 5  50 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2006    Fig. 14. Comparison of measured and calculated pile a bending moment and b deflection profiles for Test 6 at excavation depth of 1.4 m  pmeasured pile responses at excavation depths of 1.2 and 2.8 m lotted in Figs. 14 and 15 a and b , respectively, reveal that the calculated pile bending moments are much larger than the measured values. The above findings are similar to those established in the back-analyses of single pile located in the soil region that has undergone large movement in the earlier stable wall study Ong et al. 2005 and this confirms that the use of preexcavation undrained shear strength profiles in the numerical model using  limit soil pressures conventionally used for laterally loaded piles would overpredict the induced pile bending moments when the magnitude of lateral soil movement is large. Postexcavation Undrained Shear Strength Fig. 2 shows that the undrained shear strength of the top soil had significantly weakened after excavation. In view of the overprediction of pile responses at large soil movements using the preexcavation undrained shear strength, the second attempt in the back-analyses is to employ the postexcavation undrained shear strength profiles as the input soil strength values. The calculated pile bending moments and deflections using the postexcavation strength profiles for Tests 5, 6, and 7 are also shown in Figs. 13, 14, and 15, respectively. It is evident that the agreement between the calculated and measured pile bending moments are considerably better. However, the calculated pile deflections are lower than the measured values. In practice, the accurate prediction of pile bending moment is the most critical issue as this concerns the structural capacity and integrity of the pile. The underprediction of pile deflection is probably due to the presence of tension cracks and the formation of active failure wedge in the tests see Figs. 7 b and 9 , which could not be modeled in the numerical analysis. The underprediction is especially severe for Test 7. Fig. 3 d clearly shows that after an excavation depth of 1.4 m in Test 7, the wall rotation in the underlying sand layer increases considerably implying a reduction in effectiveness of the wall key-in in the sand layer as the overall wall stability is compromised. This in turn causes translation of the wall as a rigid body, which could not be accounted for in the numerical analysis. The maximum soil pressures acting on the pile is likely to be reached at large soil movements. At this juncture, it is worthwhile to evaluate the actual magnitudes of soil pressures acting on the pile. The method of deriving the soil pressure profiles is the same used for the earlier stable wall study Ong et al. 2005 . As an example, Fig. 16 shows the soil pressure profiles of Test 6 that are deduced from the corresponding bending moment profiles shown in Fig. 5 c . It is evident that the limiting soil pressures py along  Fig. 15. Comparison of measured and calculated pile bending moment and deflection profiles for Test 7 at excavation depth of a 1.2 and b 2.8 m  JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2006 / 51    Preexcavation Undrained Shear Strength with Back-Analyzed Limiting Soil Pressure In most practical situations or in design, the postexcavation undrained shear strength profiles are not available. In view of this, the back-analyzed Pn values with respect to the preexcavation undrained shear strength profiles for the three tests are also determined and shown in Fig. 17 b . As expected, the back-analyzed Pn values are much lower than the theoretical Pn values shown in Fig. 17 a . An envelope of limiting Pn values is hence plotted and indicated by the dashed line in Fig. 17 b . The maximum backanalyzed Pn value is about 6. The above finding illustrates that the reduction of Pn from a value of 9 for conventional laterally loaded piles to a lower value of 6 for piles subject to excavation-induced soil movements is attributed to the reduction in the undrained shear strength upon excavation. Although this value of 6 was derived based on back-analyses of the present centrifuge results, it may be applicable for situations where the soil has undergone large movement due to stress relief during excavation or landslide. Some evidence of the latter may be seen in an earlier study Maugeri et al. 1994 . The third and final attempt in the back-analyses is to employ the preexcavation undrained shear strength profiles but adopting the envelope of Pn values deduced from Fig. 17 b . The calculated and measured pile bending moments and deflections for Tests 5, 6, and 7 are compared and shown in Figs. 13­15, respectively. The fairly close agreement between the calculated and measured pile responses reveal that the use of preexcavation undrained shear strength with reduced limiting soil pressure would provide reasonably good prediction of the pile bending moment. The limiting soil pressures on the pile are reached upon large soil movements. It should also be noted that the calculations obtained using the postexcavation undrained shear strength profile and preexcavation undrained shear strength profile with reduced Pn values are identical. This is as expected as the two approaches essentially use the same back-analyzed limiting soil pressures. Figs. 17 a and b show that Pn is positive in magnitude above 5 m depth and becomes negative below 5 m depth. This change of sign physically means that above 5 m depth, the soil moves more than the pile while below 5 m depth, the pile moves more than the soil. This can be verified by comparing the free-field soil movement profiles shown in Figs. 11 a and 12 against pile deflection profiles shown in Figs. 11 b , 14 b , and 15 b . It can be concluded from the above back-analyses that the commonly adopted Pn value of 9 is applicable when postexcavation undrained shear strength profile is used. However, if only preexcavation undrained shear strength profiles are available, an appropriate reduction in the Pn value should be adopted in order to obtain a more accurate prediction of pile bending moment behind an excavation with large soil movements. In the present study, the maximum normalized limiting soil pressure/undrained shear strength ratio is established to be about 6. However, such a value may only be appropriate for the present test configuration and the magnitudes for other configurations need to be established from further studies.  Fig. 16. Limiting soil pressure deduced from pile bending moments F Test 6  the upper portion of the pile have been reached at an excavation depth of 1.2 m. Thereafter the soil pressures do not increase further with increasing excavation depth. Using the py values derived from the experimental data for the three tests and the postexcavation undrained shear strength profiles, the variation of normalized limiting soil pressure coefficient Pn with depth for the three tests can be derived and shown in Fig. 17 a . It is noted that the back-analyzed Pn value increases from zero at the ground surface to a maximum value of around 8 at about 2.5 m depth. The theoretical Pn values determined using Eq. 2 are also plotted in Fig. 17 a for comparison. It is evident that the theoretical and back-analyzed Pn values are reasonably close. This verifies that the postexcavation undrained shear strength values should be adopted in order to obtain a more accurate prediction of induced pile bending moments. This is theoretically correct since the failure mechanism of the soil around the pile remains the same but now since the soil has experienced a reduction in the shear strength due to stress relief, this reduced strength should be used in the analysis.  Conclusions  A series of centrifuge model tests has been conducted to investigate the performance of a pile behind retaining walls having various degrees of instability. The findings that are useful to engineering practice are highlighted as follows.  ig. 17. Variation of Pn value with depth using a postexcavation and b preexcavation undrained shear strength  52 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2006    1.  2.  3.  Behind an unstable retaining wall, the extent of significant soil deformation zone extends to about 3.5 m behind the wall and is much larger than that behind a stable wall. Owing to stress relief during excavation, the postexcavation undrained shear strength within this zone is much lower than the preexcavation undrained shear strength. The wall and soil would continue to move with time after completion of excavation and this time-dependent effect becomes more prominent with increasing excavation depth or decreasing wall stability. However, for tests experiencing wall collapse, the pile bending moment would start to reduce even before the excavation has been completed. An existing numerical model is used to back-analyze the pile bending moments and deflections obtained from the centrifuge tests. a. The conventionally adopted normalized limiting soil pressure/undrained shear strength of 9 Poulos and Davis 1980 is applicable when postexcavation shear strength is used. In such a case the calculated and measured induced pile bending moments are in reasonably good agreement. b. If the preexcavation undrained shear strength is the only soil strength parameter available as in most practical cases, an appropriate reduction for the normalized limiting soil pressure coefficient needs to be applied in the numerical analysis in order that the induced pile bending moment could be reasonably well predicted. The results of the present study reveal that the limiting soil pressure/undrained shear strength ratio for piles subject to excavation-induced soil movement is lower than that for conventionally laterally loaded pile. For the soil, wall, and pile conditions understudy, the ratio is established to be about 6.  Acknowledgment  The writers wish to acknowledge the help rendered by the laboratory personnel in the Geotechnical Centrifuge Laboratory of the National University of Singapore for their able and kind assistance in conducting the centrifuge tests for the present study.  References  Bolton, M. D., and Powrie, W. 1987 .  The collapse of diaphragm walls retaining clay.  Geotechnique, 37 3 , 335­353. Broms, B. B. 1964 .  Lateral resistance of piles in cohesive soils.  J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., 90 2 , 27­ 63. Chow, Y. K., and Yong, K. Y. 1996 .  Analysis of piles subject to lateral soil movements.  J. Inst. Eng. Singapore, 36 2 , 43­ 49. Finno, R. J., Lawrence, S. A., Allawh, N. F., and Harahop, L. S. 1991 .  Analysis of performance of pile groups adjacent to deep excavation.  J. Geotech. Eng., 117 6 , 934 ­955. Leung, C. F., Chow, Y. K., and Shen, R. F. 2000 .  Behavior of pile subject to excavation-induced soil movement.  J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 126 11 , 947­954. Maugeri, M., Castelli, F., and Motta, E. 1994 .  Analysis of piles in sliding soil.  Proc., 3rd Int. Conf. on Deep Foundation Practice Incorporating Piletalk, Singapore, 191­196. Ong, D. E. L., Leung, C. F., and Chow, Y. K. 2006 .  Pile behavior due to excavation-induced soil movement in clay. I: Stable wall.  J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 132 1 , 36-44. Poulos, H. G., and Davis, E. H. 1980 . Pile foundation analysis and design, Wiley, New York. Randolph, M. F., and Houlsby, G. T. 1984 .  The limiting pressure on a circular pile loaded laterally in cohesive soil.  Geotechnique, 34 4 , 613­ 623.  JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2006 / 53    ",599);arrFiles[82]=new Array(84,"http://www.juruterajasa.com/resources/Dominic ASCE Stable Wall.pdf","2005-12-16","Dominic ASCE Stable Wall.pdf","","","Pile Behavior due to Excavation-Induced Soil Movement in Clay. I: Stable Wall  D. E. L. Ong1; C. E. Leung2; and Y. K. Chow3  Abstract: A series of centrifuge model tests has been conducted to investigate the behavior of a single pile subjected to excavationinduced soil movements behind a stable retaining wall in clay. The results reveal that after the completion of soil excavation, the wall and the soil continue to move and such movement induces further bending moment and deflection on an adjacent pile. For a pile located within 3 m behind the wall where the soil experiences large shear strain 2 % due to stress relief as a result of the excavation, the induced pile bending moment and deflection reach their maximum values sometime after soil excavation and thereafter decrease slightly with time. For a pile located 3 m beyond the wall, the induced pile bending moment and deflection continue to increase slightly with time after excavation until the end of the test. A numerical model developed at the National University of Singapore is used to back-analyze the centrifuge test data. The method gives a reasonably good prediction of the induced bending moment and deflection on a pile located at 3 m or beyond the wall. For a pile located at 1 m behind the wall where the soil experiences large shear strain 2 % due to stress relief resulting from the excavation, the calculated pile response is in good agreement with the measured data if the correct soil shear strength obtained from postexcavation is used in the analysis. However, if the original soil shear strength prior to excavation is used in the analysis, this leads to an overestimation of the maximum bending moment of about 25%. The practical implications of the findings are also discussed in this paper. DOI: 10.1061/ ASCE 1090-0241 2006 132:1 36 CE Database subject headings: Bending moments; Centrifuge model; Clays; Deflection; Excavation; Failures; Soil pressure; Soil deformation; Retaining walls.  Introduction  Owing to huge land cost in many large cities, buildings are often constructed in close proximity to one another. Basement excavation work for a new building would result in soil movements behind the retaining structure. The soil movements might induce considerable bending moment and deflection on the pile foundations supporting existing structures nearby. Centrifuge model studies had been carried out at the National University of Singapore Leung et al. 2000, 2003 to investigate the effects of excavation-induced soil movements on adjacent single piles and pile groups in sand, respectively. They established that for piles in sand, the induced pile bending moment and deflection increase with increasing excavation depth but decrease exponentially with  Geotechnical Engineer, Civil and Transportation Division, CPG Consultants Pte. Ltd., Singapore, 307685. E-mail: dominic.ong@ cpgcorp.com.sg 2 Associate Professor, Centre for Soft Ground Engineering, Civil Engineering Dept., National Univ. of Singapore, Singapore, 117576. E-mail: cvelcf@nus.edu.sg 3 Professor, Centre for Soft Ground Engineering, Civil Engineering Dept., National Univ. of Singapore, Singapore, 117576. E-mail: cvechow@nus.edu.sg Note. Discussion open until June 1, 2006. Separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers. To extend the closing date by one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on March 17, 2004; approved on April 12, 2005. This paper is part of the Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 132, No. 1, January 1, 2006. ©ASCE, ISSN 1090-0241/2006/136 ­ 44/ 25.00.  1  increasing distance between the pile and the retaining wall. As clay rather than sand is the predominant subsurface material in many cities, the earlier studies are therefore extended to investigate the behavior of a single pile due to excavation-induced soil movement behind a stable retaining wall in clay. The centrifuge model test results and the practical implications of the findings are reported in detail in this paper.  Centrifuge Model Setup and Procedure  In centrifuge model tests, there are several approaches to simulate soil excavation in front of a retaining wall. In the 1970s Lyndon and Schofield 1972 , model excavation was carried out at 1g and the centrifuge model was then subjected to an increasing centrifugal acceleration field until the wall failed. This method has many severe limitations and was superseded by simulating the soil excavation with drainage of heavy liquid in-flight Bolton and Powrie 1987, 1988 . A portion of the soil is removed at 1g and replaced by heavy liquid typically zinc chloride ZnCl2 that is contained in a latex bag and has the same unit weight as the soil. Soil excavation is then simulated by releasing ZnCl2 out of the bag during centrifuge flight. However, this method may not simulate the actual excavation correctly as the coefficient of lateral pressure of ZnCl2 is 1 and may be different from that of the soil. Recently a most realistic method Kimura et al. 1994; Loh et al. 1998 has been developed by excavating the soil in-flight using a complex robot excavator. Owing to space constraint in accommodating the robot excavator in the model setup, the method of draining ZnCl2 is employed to simulate the soil excavation in the present study. The limitations of the adopted model excavation  36 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2006    Fig. 1. Centrifuge model setup all dimensions in mm J  technique will be further discussed later in the section on test configuration and soil characterization. The centrifuge model setup shown in Fig. 1 is essentially the same as that employed in the earlier studies on sand. All the tests in the present study were conducted at 50g on the National University of Singapore geotechnical centrifuge. The internal dimensions of the stainless steel model container are 540 mm long, 200 mm wide, and 470 mm high. Water tightness is ensured by bolting all connecting faces of the model container with rubber seals or gaskets in between. The entire testing process was photographed by a high resolution camera through the front transparent perspex window of the model container. Before soil placement, grease was first applied to the four walls of the container to reduce friction at the soil/wall interfaces. The model container was then filled with water and Toyoura sand was rained from a height of 600 mm to form the underlying sand layer of appropriate thickness. A sheet of filter paper was then placed on top of the sand to prevent subsequent mixing of sand and clay. To prepare the clay sample, kaolin powder was mixed at a water content of 120% in a mixer to produce uniform clay slurry. Simultaneous mixing and de-airing were done in the mixer for about 4 to 5 h. The kaolin slurry was then placed under water in the model container until the desired height was reached. Two miniature de-aired pore pressure transducers PPTs were then embedded in the kaolin slurry. The clay was gradually consolidated until a maximum surcharge pressure of 20 kPa. The model container was then placed on the centrifuge and subjected to 50g acceleration field. During this period of self-weight consolidation of the clay, the dissipation of excess pore water pressures in the clay and the ground settlements were monitored by PPTs and potentiometers, respectively. It normally took approximately 90 min for the ground settlements to stabilize and the pore  pressures to reach the hydrostatic pressure. The final thickness of the clay layer is about 130 mm. After at least 90% self-weight soil consolidation has been achieved, the centrifuge was spun down and the back face of the model container Fig. 1 a was removed to facilitate the insertion of additional PPTs in the clay at positions shown in Fig. 1 b . The model pile and model wall were then installed by jacking them vertically into the clay using guides. The model pile was fabricated from a hollow square aluminum tube and instrumented with 10 pairs of strain gauges. Epoxy was applied to the entire length of the pile with the final pile width measuring 12.6 mm 630 mm in prototype scale . The total length of the pile is 350 mm with a soil embedment depth of 250 mm or 12.5 m in prototype scale. The prototype bending rigidity, EI, of the pile is calibrated to be 2.2 105 kN · m2, which is equivalent to that of a 600-mm diameter cast in situ Grade 35 concrete bored pile. The model retaining wall is made of a 3-mm-thick aluminum plate with a prototype bending rigidity of 24 103 kN · m2 / m. This is equivalent to a FSP-IIA sheet pile with a prototype embedment depth of 8 m. After the installation of model pile and wall, a portion of the clay was then carefully removed and replaced by a latex bag containing ZnCl2 solution. The density and height of the ZnCl2 solution were made identical to those of the removed clay. w The front perspex window of the model container Fig. 1 a as subsequently removed to facilitate the placement of markers along the edge of the retaining wall and on the clay facing the perspex at 20 mm square grids. After this process was completed and the front perspex and back faces of the model container were fixed back, a CV-M1 2 / 3 in. charge coupled device progressive scan high resolution image processing camera was mounted in front of the perspex window. For a high resolution image, a pixelto-pixel spacing of less than 0.1 mm could be achieved. Two spot lights, each with a 50 W halogen bulb, were positioned on a cross bar at a specific distance in front and parallel to the model container to achieve the best lighting effects during centrifuge tests. All captured images were stored in a computer placed on board of the centrifuge arm. Potentiometers were then installed to measure the ground settlements behind the excavation. The pile head deflection was monitored by two noncontact laser transducers. Based on the manufacturer  \'s specifications, these highly accurate laser transducers have a maximum displacement measurement range of 20 mm and a sensitivity of ±0.005 mm when applied on aluminum material. This translates to a maximum measurement error of ±0.25 mm in prototype scale. The completed model setup was then spun up to 50g to allow the soil to reconsolidate. After both the pore water pressures and ground settlements behind the wall showed negligible changes, the ZnCl2 solution in the latex bag was then released through the remote-controlled solenoid valve see Fig. 1 b to depict the in-flight excavation of soil. There was a gradual drop in the water level behind the retaining wall due to water evaporation and seepage from the retained side to the excavated side of the wall during a test. In view of this, the ground water level before the test was kept higher than the ground surface such that the final water level at the end of the test was still slightly above the ground surface to prevent the clay from cracking due to drying up of the clay. The ground water elevation behind the wall was monitored by 2 PPTs not shown in Fig. 1 for clarity placed on the soil surface. Prior to excavation, the ground water level in front of the wall was kept at the level of the base of the latex bag. As the behavior of clay is time-dependent, the tests were only terminated about 3 h 310 days of soil consolidation in prototype scale a fter the completion of soil excavation. During the test proper,  OURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2006 / 37    all instruments were each sampled at a rate of 1 sample per second and high-resolution photographs were taken at regular intervals.  Test Configuration and Soil Characterization  The results of four centrifuge model tests involving a stable retaining wall are presented in this paper. Unless otherwise stated, the test results are presented in prototype scale hereinafter. In each test, the maximum soil excavation depth is fixed at 1.2 m. Using the limit equilibrium analysis Bolton and Powrie 1987 , the required wall embedment depth should be at least 3.4 m. In order to ensure a sufficiently high factor of safety against wall collapse, the wall was embedded 8 m into the soil penetrating through the entire clay layer and socketed 1.5 m into the underlying sand layer. The four tests are labeled as Tests 1, 2, 3, and 4 with a single pile located at 1, 3, 5, and 7 m behind the retaining wall, respectively. In all cases, the pile was socketed 6 m into the lower sand layer and rested directly on the base of the model container. Under a confining pressure of between 50 and 100 kPa, the internal friction angle, , of the underlying Toyoura sand was determined to be about 43°. The Malaysian kaolin clay has a liquid limit of 80%, plastic limit of 40%, compression index of 0.64, and swelling index of 0.14. The coefficient of permeability of normally consolidated kaolin clay at a consolidation pressure of 100 kPa was determined to be about 1.36 10-8 m / s. The clay has a coefficient of earth pressure at rest of about 0.6, a specific gravity of 2.65, and of 23°. To evaluate the undrained shear strength of the clay, T-bar penetrometer tests Stewart and Randolph 1991 were performed in-flight at 1.5 and 3 m behind the retaining wall. The surface of the T-bar was smoothened by machine to minimize friction during its penetration into the clay. Fig. 2 shows the undrained shear strength profile of the clay prior to and after excavation. The strength profile obtained prior to soil excavation suggests that the sample preparation process of excavation and the placement of latex bag at 1g had not disturbed the clay significantly as long as the clay was subject to reconsolidation in the centrifuge prior to the test proper. In addition, the profile reveals a distinct top 2.5 m overconsolidated crust created by preconsolidation at 1g and below which is a normally consolidated clay sample. After soil reconsolidation and prior to excavation, the undrained shear strength cu profile of the clay can be reasonably represented by cu/ vo = 0.29 OCR0.85 1  Fig. 2. Undrained shear strength profiles of kaolin clay obtained by T-bar tests  A major limitation in using ZnCl2 to simulate excavation is that the coefficient of lateral pressure of liquid is 1 which may be different from that of the soil. As such, the  soil  represented by ZnCl2 between the current and final excavation depths at intermediate stages of excavation cannot develop a resisting pressure in excess of the fluid pressure in the flexible latex bag. In the present study, there is a 2.5 m overconsolidated clay layer above the normally consolidated kaolin clay. As the excavation depth is only 1.2 m, the excavated soil lies entirely within the overconsolidated layer. In an earlier centrifuge model study on the excavation of overconsolidated clay using ZnCl2 Powrie 1986 , the lateral earth pressure of the clay was established to be about 1 and close to the lateral pressure coefficient of ZnCl2. Thus it is believed that the use of ZnCl2 to simulate excavation could also yield fairly reliable test results in the present study.  Test Results  Figs. 3 a­c show the development of excavation depth, wall head deflection, and pile head deflection at ground level, respectively, with time. The wall head deflection is obtained from the movement of markers placed around the ground level elevation on the edge of the wall using an image processing technique. The method of estimating the marker movements will be described later. On the other hand, the pile head deflection at the ground level is derived by geometry from two displacement readings obtained along the free-standing portion of the pile. As the progress of excavation depth and wall head deflection with time for the four tests are essentially very similar, only a typical set of test data are shown in Figs. 3 a and b for clarity. By considering that the equivalent prototype soil excavation area would be carried out by medium size excavators in the field, the rate of excavation is determined to be about 0.55 m per day. As such, the full excavation depth of 1.2 m over an area of approximately 100 m2 is to be completed in 2.2 days in the tests. This relatively rapid excavation rate would prevent significant softening of the soil due to swelling during the simulated excavation in the centrifuge, as recommended by Powrie and Kantartzi 1996 and Powrie and Daly 2002 . Fig. 4 shows the measured settlement troughs at different times. These troughs are derived from several displacement transducers placed at various distances behind the wall. As  where vo = effective overburden pressure; and OCR overconsolidation ratio of the clay. Fig. 2 shows that at a distance of 1.5 m behind the wall, there is a significant reduction in the undrained shear strength after excavation for the top 1.8 m of soil, despite that the maximum excavation depth is only 1.2 m. On the other hand, there is no noticeable reduction in the undrained shear strength at a distance of 3 m behind the wall. The insertion of T-bar penetrometer would inevitably push the soil towards the retaining wall. At 1.5 m behind the wall, the T-bar was over 4 bar diameters away from the wall and the image processing results revealed that the whole wall did not move during the T-bar tests, it can hence be deduced that the T-bar gives reasonably accurate measurements of the undrained shear strength profile.  38 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2006    J Fig. 3. Variations of a excavation depth; b average wall head deflection; c induced pile head deflection; and d induced maximum pile bending moment with time  Fig. 5. Measured pile a bending moment; b shear force; c deflection; and d soil pressure profiles for Test 2 pile located 3 m behind wall  expected, the magnitude of soil movement decreases with increasing distance from the wall. It is noted that after completion of excavation, the soil continues to settle with time while the rate of increase in settlement decreases with time. However, between the period of completion of excavation to the end of test about 310 days in duration , the incremental soil settlements are noted to be higher at locations further away from the wall than those  Fig. 4. Surface settlement troughs during and after excavation  nearer to the wall. Fig. 4 further reveals that the soil settlement extends to a great distance behind the wall. In reality, the far-field soil settlement may not be as exaggerated as that observed in Fig. 4. This is due to the fact that since no ground water recharge is allowed in the centrifuge container, the whole block of soil constraint by the dimensions of the container is affected by the change in the ground water regime caused by the excavation process, giving rise to a greater distance of influence than in reality. Fig. 5 a shows the induced bending moment profile along the pile at different times obtained from Test 2 for a pile located 3 m behind the wall. The induced bending moment is noted to increase with excavation depth and the maximum induced bending moment is located at about 7.5 m below the ground. After completion of excavation, the bending moments along the pile continue to increase for sometime and reach the respective peak values at about 50 days after completion of excavation after which they decrease slightly with time. The induced shear force and soil pressure profile along the pile can be derived from the first and second derivatives of the bending moment profiles, respectively. This is achieved by fitting a fourth order spline function between successive data points. On the other hand, the pile deflection profile can be obtained by integrating the spline function for the bending moment profiles twice with two specified boundary conditions in the double integration. The first condition is the measured pile head displacement and the second is zero pile toe rotation. Alternatively, very similar results can be deduced for the second condition if the position of zero pile movement that corresponds to the elevation of zero change in pressure is adopted. Figs. 5 b­d show the derived pile shear force,  OURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2006 / 39    Fig. 6. Variation of excess pore water pressure with time over the first 30 days of test  Fig. 7. Variation of long-term excess pore water pressure with time  deflection, and lateral soil pressure profiles, respectively. It is noted that the pile shear force, deflection, and soil pressure profiles also reach the respective peak values 50 days after excavation and after which they reduce slightly with time. The development of maximum induced pile bending moment along the pile with time for all four tests is shown in Fig. 3 d . The elevation of the maximum induced pile bending moment is noted to be the same for all four tests. As mentioned earlier, for Test 2 with the pile located at 3 m behind the wall, the maximum induced bending moment reaches its peak value 50 days after completion of excavation after which the bending moment decreases slightly with time. For Test 1 with the pile located very close to the wall at 1 m away, the trend is similar except that the peak value of maximum bending moment is reached four days after completion of excavation. On the other hand, for Tests 3 and 4 with the pile located further away from the wall at 5 and 7 m away, respectively, the maximum bending moment is observed to increase continuously with time. Figs. 3 c and d clearly show that the induced pile bending moment and deflection reduce considerably with increasing distance between the pile and the wall. It is also evident from Figs. 3­5 that the movements of the wall, the soil, and the pile as well as the induced pile bending moment are dependent upon excavation depth and time. Further evaluation of the time-dependent responses of the pile, the soil, and the wall are examined in the next section.  Evaluation of Time-Dependent Pile Responses  Pore Water Pressure Fig. 6 shows the changes in excess pore pressures in the soil within the first 30 days of a typical test. The location of the four PPTs are shown in Fig. 1. The excess pore pressure is the measured pore pressure minus the ground water pressure. It should be noted that the ground water pressure varies throughout the test due to a gradual drop in the water level caused by water evaporation and seepage as well as the drag down of the pore pressure transducer by the settling soil. For PPTs 1, 2, and 3, the drop in the ground water level was measured by 2 PPTs placed on the ground level while the downward movement of a transducer was estimated by the movement of the closest soil marker from highresolution photographs taken during the tests. Fig. 6 reveals that negative excess pore pressures have developed during excavation.  For PPTs 1, 2, and 3 that are located behind the wall, negative excess pore pressures develop and increase with excavation depth and then dissipate with time after the excavation has been completed. Both PPT 2 and PPT 3 readings exhibit the similar trend of excess pore pressure as the transducers are located close to the permeable sand layer where seepage can occur easily. However, closer examination of the pressure magnitudes reveals that PPT 2 exhibits a higher excess pore pressure after excavation. This is reasonable as PPT 2 is located closer to the wall than PPT 3. The above results reveal that there is stress relief in the soil and water seepage from the retained side to the excavated side of the wall. Hence the soil and the wall continue to move with time after excavation. Fig. 7 shows the excess pore pressure responses for the entire test duration. The excess negative pore pressures behind the wall have fully dissipated within 30 days after the completion of excavation, as indicated by the readings of PPTs 1, 2, and 3. PPT 4, which is embedded at 2.5 m beneath the excavation base in front of the wall, experiences some fluctuations in readings. Prior to excavation, the water level in front of the wall was kept at the level of the base of the latex bag i.e., excavation base elevation . Photographs taken during the tests revealed that the ground water within the excavation gradually rose due to water seepage from the retained side. As the rising ground water level within the excavation could not be accurately determined over time due to the obstruction of the latex bag in the excavation area, the datum of the ground water level is assumed to remain fixed at the excavation base elevation for simplicity. For this reason, it is observed that the calculated excess pore water pressure at PPT 4 see Fig. 7 shows a rapid rise between about 100 and 130 days after completion of excavation. As such, the PPT 4 readings shown in Fig. 7 may not reflect the excess pore pressure magnitudes accurately. Despite the above shortcomings, the trend of PPT 4 readings over time clearly reveal that significant seepage has taken place from the retained side to the excavated side of the wall through the underlying permeable sand layer. This also means that a steady-state condition would not be reached until the water levels on both sides of the wall had equalized, since the hydraulic boundary conditions after excavation were constantly changing. It is acknowledged that the above is a limitation of the present experimental setup which should be improved in future studies.  40 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2006    J  Fig. 9. Development of fissures around pile Test 1 plan view  Fig. 8. Development of soil movements: a Photographs; b soil movement vectors; and c shear strains  Subsurface Soil Movements The above excess pore pressure responses reveal that the soil behavior is time dependent and the soil continues to move with time due to dissipation of excess pore pressure. To further investigate the time-dependent phenomenon, the subsurface soil movements are examined in detail in this section. Fig. 8 a shows selected photographs of soil markers taken at different times of Test 2 pile located 3 m from the wall using the highresolution image-processing camera. By comparing the position of the soil markers from the photographs using the commercial computer software OPTIMAS, the soil movement vectors could be derived and shown in Fig. 8 b . It is noted that relatively large subsurface soil movements start to occur beyond an excavation depth of 1 m. This observation is consistent with the corresponding large increase in the pile deflection and bending moment when excavation depth exceeds 1 m, as shown in Figs. 5 c and a , respectively. Fig. 8 b further reveals that the soil deformations increase significantly as the wall moves and the significant soil deformation zone extends deeper with increasing wall movement. This zone is confined to an approximate triangular area behind the wall bounded by a line of about 45° to the vertical. The size of the zone increases with time after the completion of excavation. This observed soil deformation zone is somewhat similar to that observed in an earlier study Bolton and Powrie 1988 . The base of the maximum soil deformation zone is observed to be at the bottom elevation of the clay layer, as illustrated in the lowest sketch of Fig. 8 b . As the test configuration is identical for Tests 1 to 4 except for the pile location from the wall, it can be assumed that the soil deformation zone is the same for the four tests.  It can hence be deduced that the proportion of a pile located within the significant soil deformation zone would decrease with increasing distance of pile from the wall, supporting the earlier observation of decreasing pile bending moment and deflection with increasing pile distance. Fig. 9 shows a photograph of the top view of the ground surface taken after a test. Many fissures have been observed to develop around the pile and these fissures have been identified and marked on the figure. The soil movement and the development of fissures around the pile clearly illustrate that the problem under study is three-dimensional in nature. This phenomenon will be further investigated in a companion paper on pile performance behind a collapsed wall Leung et al. 2005 . To further examine the phenomenon of progressive soil movements, the soil movement vectors can be translated to shear strains Ou et al. 2000 . The shear strains provide an indication on the degree of soil shearing and reduction in soil stiffness during and after excavation. Fig. 8 c shows the measured shear strains of the clay at different stages. Upon completion of excavation, the development of shear strain is confined to within 4 m behind the wall. Within 50 days after the completion of excavation, the shear strains have propagated further and deeper due to progressive wall movement shown in Fig. 3 b . The development of shear strains around the pile is consistent with the concept of characteristic meshes in a plastically deformed cohesive soil Randolph and Houlsby 1984 . In such a case, the soil surrounding the piles would experience a reduction in strength and shear modulus Menzies 1997 . It is believed that this scenario applies to the soils within the soil deformation zone in the present study. Therefore, for a pile with a substantial portion of it lying within this largely plastically deformed soil region, there would be a relaxation of the induced pile bending moment once the soil within the deformation zone has weakened. With reference to the interpretations of soil strain field results behind a stable retaining wall Bolton and Powrie 1988 , the writers propose that the 2% soil shear strain be the threshold value above which the soil strength and stiffness would decrease considerably. The 2% shear strain contour is highlighted in the diagrams of Fig. 8 c . Between 50 and 300 days after the completion of excavation, the main plastic deformed soil region within a distance of 1.5 m behind the wall , extends to a depth of about 3 m and a width of 2.5 m. This observation is consistent with the postexcavation undrained shear strength measurements shown in Fig. 2 whereby the soil at 1.5 m behind the wall has significantly weakened after excavation while the soil at 3 m behind the wall remains practically undisturbed.  OURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2006 / 41    Fig. 11. Comparison of measured and calculated maximum induced pile a bending moment and b deflection profiles Fig. 10. Measured lateral soil movement profiles  Fig. 8 c also reveals that for piles located further away from the wall, the magnitudes of shear strains around the piles wouldbe considerably smaller than those located closer to the wall. Hence the majority of the soil surrounding the piles has not weakened. This helps to explain the progressive increase in pile bending moment for Tests 3 and 4 over time shown in Fig. 3 d . Fig. 10 shows the measured free-field lateral soil movement profiles at different locations behind the wall and times derived from the photographs of soil markers of a typical test. As expected, the magnitudes of lateral soil movements are noted to reduce with increasing depth and distance away from the wall. Once again, Fig. 10 confirms that the soil continues to move after completion of excavation. These soil movement profiles will be used as part of the input parameters for the numerical back-analyses presented in the next section.  The following equation proposed by Poulos and Davis 1980 , based on a modification of the work by Broms 1964 for the limiting soil pressure, is used in the numerical model: p y = 2 1 + z/d cu 9cu 4  where z = depth and d = pile diameter/width. This limiting pressure models the soil flow around the pile when soil failure occurs. For the underlying sand layer, it is proposed that Leung et al. 2000 E  s  = 6z  in MPa  5  Numerical Back-analyses  A simplified numerical model Chow and Yong 1996 is used to back-analyze the responses of single pile subjected to lateral soil movements in clay. In this model, the pile is modeled as a series of linear elastic beam elements and the soil is idealized using the modulus of subgrade reaction. This numerical method has been adopted successfully to back-analyze the centrifuge model test on a single pile subject to excavation-induced soil movements in sand Leung et al. 2000 . The approach is similar to that of two earlier studies Goh et al. 1997; Poulos and Chen 1997 except for the case of Poulos and Chen, the soil is modeled as an elastic continuum. The numerical analysis requires the knowledge of the pile flexural rigidity E pI p , the distribution of lateral soil stiffness Kh with depth, the limiting soil pressures py that acts on the pile, and the lateral soil movement profile at the pile location. The distribution of lateral soil stiffness with depth, Kh, is assumed to be related to the Young \'s modulus of the soil, Es, as follows Chow and Yong 1996 : Kh Es 2  For lateral loading, Es of clay ranges from 150cu to 400cu Poulos and Davis 1980 . For the soft kaolin clay used in the present study, it is taken that Kh = Es = 150cu 3  This simplified one-dimensional model takes into account the flow of the soil past the pile when soil failure occurs. This effect cannot be simulated using a two-dimensional plane strain finite element model. To properly analyze this problem would, otherwise, require modeling the problem in three dimensions which would require a considerable amount of computer resources and time. In design, the most important concern is the induced maximum bending moment on the pile. As the pile responses are time dependent, the measured lateral soil movement profile corresponding to the measured peak pile bending moment profile for the individual tests is used as the input in the back-analysis. If this is unavailable, the free-field soil movement may be estimated using two-dimensional plane strain finite element analysis. The input undrained shear strength values are based on the measured strength profile prior to excavation. Figs. 11 a and b show a comparison between the measured and calculated maximum bending moment and deflection profiles of the pile for the four tests. It is noted that the measured and calculated pile responses for Tests 2, 3, and 4 reveal fair agreement. However, for Test 1 with the pile located 1 m behind the wall, the calculated pile maximum bending moment is about 25% higher than the measured values if the preexcavation undrained shear strength values are used. Fig. 2 reveals that after excavation, the soil within 1.5 m behind the wall has experienced a substantial reduction in the undrained shear strength for the top 1.8 m depth of soil, despite that the maximum excavation depth is only 1.2 m. This reduction could be attributed to stress relief in the soil and water seepage from the retained side to the excavated side of the wall. Fig. 2 also shows that the soil at 3 m or beyond behind the wall has not weakened due to the excavation. The Test 1 results were reanalyzed using the postexcavation undrained shear strength profile obtained at 1.5 m from the wall as shown in  42 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2006    Fig. 2. This yields a smaller limiting soil pressure profile in the upper soil region to better reflect the situation of large strain soil deformation. The revised calculated pile bending moment and deflection profiles for Test 1 are also shown in Figs. 11 a and b . It is evident that the revised calculated pile responses give a substantially better agreement with the measured pile responses. e ig. 8 c reveals that the significant soil shear strain taken as 2% F xtends to about 2 m behind the wall. It is hence suggested that the postexcavation undrained shear strength, which reflects the correct soil strength due to the stress relief resulting from the excavation, should be employed in the back-analysis if the pile is located within 2 m from the wall. Hence the correct soil shear strength profile should be used in Eq. 4 to give a reasonable estimate of the pile response. The large strain soil deformation situation will be further investigated in a companion paper Leung et al. 2005 when addressing the pile behavior due to excavation-induced soil movement behind a collapsed wall.  5.  The induced pile bending moment and deflection can be predicted reasonably well using an existing numerical a method for piles located at 3 m 2.4 times excavation depth nd beyond the wall. In these cases, the free-field soil movement profile at the pile location and the preexcavation undrained shear strength, which does not change due to the excavation, are employed in the back-analysis. For a pile located at 1 m behind the wall, the calculated and measured pile bending moments are in good agreement when the postexcavation undrained shear strength profile is used in the back-analysis. However, if the original preexcavation shear strength profile is used, the calculated maximum pile bending moment is about 25% higher than the measured value. The topics of pre- and post-undrained shear strength and limiting soil pressure on the pile will be extensively investigated in the companion paper Leung et al. 2005 involving a study on single pile behind a collapsed retaining wall.  Conclusions  A series of centrifuge model tests has been carried out to investigate the effects of excavation-induced soil movements on a free-headed single pile adjacent to an unstrutted excavation in clay behind a stable retaining wall. The tests were terminated 310 days after completion of excavation and the distance between the pile and the wall ranges from 1 to 7 m i.e., the pile is located at 0.8 to 5.8 times excavation depth behind the wall . An existing numerical method with the pile modeled as a series of linear elastic beams and the soil idealized using the modulus of subgrade reaction has been employed to back-analyze the induced pile bending moment and deflection based on the observed free-field soil movement profile at the pile location. Based on the measured undrained shear strength profiles before and after excavation, the interpretation of induced pile bending moment and deflection profiles in relation to the observed free-field soil movement profiles, and the results from the numerical backanalysis, the findings that are relevant to engineering practice are summarized as follows: 1. Owing to stress relief, the postexcavation undrained shear strength for the top 1.8 m depth of soil within 1.5 m behind the retaining wall has been significantly reduced, despite that the maximum excavation depth is only 1.2 m. 2. The significant soil deformation zone is confined to an approximate triangular area behind the wall bounded by a line of about 45° to the vertical. The base of the zone is at the bottom of the clay layer. 3. The induced bending moment and deflection on a pile located at 1 m 0.8 times excavation depth behind the wall is significant as the soil has been significantly weakened after excavation. The induced pile responses reduce considerably with increasing distance between the pile and the wall as the proportion of pile length within the significant soil deformation zone reduces. 4. Owing to dissipation of excess pore pressure after completion of excavation, the wall and soil continue to move with time. As a result, the induced pile bending moment and deflection also increase with time. Such time-dependent pile responses should be taken into account in engineering practice.  Acknowledgments  The writers wish to acknowledge the help rendered by the laboratory personnel in the Geotechnical Centrifuge Laboratory of the National University of Singapore for their able and kind assistance in conducting the centrifuge tests for the present study.  References  Bolton, M. D., and Powrie, W. 1987 .  The collapse of diaphragm walls retaining clay.  Geotechnique, 37 3 , 335­353. Bolton, M. D., and Powrie, W. 1988 .  Behaviour of diaphragm walls in clay prior to collapse.  Geotechnique, 38 2 , 167­189. Broms, B. B. 1964 .  Lateral resistance of piles in cohesive soils.  J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., 90 2 , 27­ 63. Chow, Y. K., and Yong, K. Y. 1996 .  Analysis of piles subject to lateral soil movements.  J. Inst. Eng. Singapore, 36 2 , 43­ 49. Goh, A. T. C., Teh, C. I., and Wong, K. S. 1997 .  Analysis of piles subjected to embankment-induced lateral soil movements.  J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 123 9 , 792­ 801. Kimura, T., Takemura, J., Hiro-oka, A., Okamura, M., and Park, J. 1994 .  Excavation in soft clay using an in-flight excavator.  Proc., Int. Conf. Centrifuge 94, C. F. Leung, F. H. Lee, and T. S. Tan, eds. Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 649­ 654. Leung, C. F., Chow, Y. K., and Shen, R. F. 2000 .  Behavior of pile subject to excavation-induced soil movement.  J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 126 11 , 947­954. Leung, C. F., Lim, J. K., Shen, R. F., and Chow, Y. K. 2003 .  Behavior of pile groups subject to excavation-induced soil movement.  J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 129 1 , 58 ­ 65. Leung, C. F., Ong, D. E. L., and Chow, Y. K. 2006 .  Pile behavior due to excavation-induced soil movement in clay. II: Collapsed wall.  J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 132 1 , 45­53. Loh, C. K., Tan, T. S., and Lee, F. H. 1998 .  Three-dimensional excavation tests.  Proc., Int. Conf. Centrifuge 98, T. Kimura, O. Kusakabe, and J. Takemura, eds., Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 649­ 654. Lyndon, A., and Schofield, A. N. 1972 .  Centrifuge model test of short term failure in London clay.  Geotechnique, 20 4 , 440­ 442. Menzies, B. 1997 .  Applying modern measures.  Ground Eng., 30, 22­23. Ou, C. Y., Liao, J. T., and Cheng, W. L. 2000 .  Building response and ground movements induced by a deep excavation.  Geotechnique, 50 3 , 209­220.  JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2006 / 43    Poulos, H. G., and Chen, L. T. 1997 .  Pile response due to excavationinduced lateral soil movement.  J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 123 2 , 94 ­99. Poulos, H. G., and Davis, E. H. 1980 . Pile foundation analysis and design, Wiley, New York. Powrie, W. 1986 .  The behaviour of diaphragm walls in clay.  PhD thesis, Cambridge Univ., Cambridge, U.K. Powrie, W., and Daly, M. P. 2002 .  Centrifuge model tests on embedded retaining walls supported by earth berms.  Geotechnique, 52 2 , 89­106.  Powrie, W., and Kantartzi, C. 1996 .  Ground response during diaphragm wall installation in clay: Centrifuge model tests.  Geotechnique, 46 4 , 725­739. Randolph, M. F., and Houlsby, G. T. 1984 .  The limiting pressure on a circular pile loaded laterally in cohesive soil.  Geotechnique, 34 4 , 613­ 623. Stewart, D. P., and Randolph, M. F. 1991 .  A new site investigation tool for the centrifuge.  Proc. Int. Conf. Centrifuge 91, H. Y. Ko and F. McLean, eds., Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 521­538.  44 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2006    ",379);arrFiles[83]=new Array(85,"http://www.juruterajasa.com/resources/ICSFF_Final.pdf","2004-06-26","Microsoft Word - Paper ICSFF_61_c.doc","","","International Conference on Structural and Foundation Failures August 2-4, 2004, Singapore  PILE BEHAVIOUR BEHIND A FAILED EXCAVATION  D.E.L. Ong, C.F. Leung and Y.K. Chow Centre for Soft Ground Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117576 engp0942@nus.edu.sg, cvelcf@nus.edu.sg and cvechow@nus.edu.sg  Abstract Deep excavation often results in lateral soil movements that may threaten the structural integrity of piles if the induced pile bending moment due to soil movement is not appropriately designed for. In the first part of this paper, limited results of a field study are presented to illustrate the detrimental effects of soil movement on adjacent piles. To achieve a better understanding of the problem, a centrifuge model study is then carried out to evaluate the pile behaviour behind a failed retaining wall in detail. An enhanced image processing system was employed to monitor the soil movements due to excavation and accurate subsurface soil movement profiles behind the wall can hence be derived. In addition, bending moment profiles along the pile were also monitored during and after the excavation. Keywords: Centrifuge model, Bending moment, Tension cracks, Soil  flow , Free field soil movement, Time dependent  Introduction Excavation in soft soil often results in large lateral soil movements, which would induce additional bending moments, shear forces and deflections on piles supporting adjacent structures. Poulos (1997) reported the results of a field study that a building has been severely damaged and eventually demolished due to excessive soil movements caused by soil excavation nearby. Thus, the knowledge of these additional loads/deflections is of great importance to ensure that the structural integrity of the pile foundations can be maintained. It is also important to understand the behaviour of the structures during and after failure so as to widen engineers \' knowledge beyond the serviceability limits of the structures. Real-life structures are not normally built and then tested to failure due to prohibitive high cost. Therefore, full-scale testing of a structure to failure is deemed uneconomical and undesirable. In the first part of this paper, limited data from a field case study are presented to illustrate the detrimental effects of soil movements on adjacent piles. However, details of pile behaviour could not be obtained due to limited instrumentation in the field. In view of this, a centrifuge model study is carried out to investigate the pile  Ong, Leung and Chow    International Conference on Structural and Foundation Failures August 2-4, 2004, Singapore  behaviour behind a failed retaining wall in detail. Centrifuge modelling technique is an attractive alternative to study the problem as the tests can be carried out under a controlled environment such that the soil strength profile, soil deformation and elapsed time can be measured with accuracy and converted to prototype scale using established scaling laws (Taylor, 1995). The results of the laboratory studies are also presented in this paper. Field study In this case study, a building was constructed with the surface consisting of soft marine clay underlying by stiffer soils. To facilitate the building basement construction, an unsupported 5-m high slope excavation was carried out in front of a capped 4-pile group of 900-mm diameter cast-in-situ concrete bored piles. One of the piles was installed with an in-pile inclinometer and strain gauges while the other one was only installed with strain gauges. An in-soil inclinometer was also installed adjacent to the pile group to measure the lateral subsurface soil movement profiles caused by the excavation. As no massive soil movement has been anticipated in the design, the piles were nominally reinforced with 0.5% steel reinforcement. The cracking moment capacity (Mcr) of the piles is about 264 kNm and the ultimate bending moment capacity (Mult) is 520 kNm. Unfortunately, during the course of excavation, the slope excavation failed due to heavy rainfall. Figure 1 shows the variations of lateral soil movements, pile deflection and induced maximum bending moment on the pile during the course of excavation.  400 800  Bending moment (kNm)  Lateral pile deflection / soil movement (mm)  300  600  Depth (m) 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0  Pile Soil deflection movement (mm) (mm)  200  400  100  200  Bending moment (kNm)  0 0 20 40 60 80  0  Day  Figure 1. Measured lateral soil movement, pile deflection and maximum induced bending moment over time  It is evident that when soil movement increases, the induced pile deflection and bending moment increase. It is noted the magnitude of pile deflections are considerably smaller than the corresponding soil movements at the same depth. At the end of the excavation,  Ong, Leung and Chow    International Conference on Structural and Foundation Failures August 2-4, 2004, Singapore  the measured bending moment has far exceeded its Mult value. This rendered the pile group to be unfit for carrying the column loads. Thus the pile group had to be demolished and replaced by another pile group. This event has successfully highlighted the importance of understanding the pile behaviour at limiting condition and during failure so that future similar failures can be avoided. It should be made aware that the failure of the pile group in this study was purely accidental due to extremely heavy rainfall during excavation. Since real-life structures are not normally built and then tested to failure due to prohibitive high cost, centrifuge model study is carried out to investigate the pile behaviour behind a failed excavation in detail. Centrifuge study Experiment set-up and procedures Figure 2 shows the centrifuge mode set-up for present study. The centrifuge tests were conducted at 50g on the National University of Singapore geotechnical centrifuge. Details of the experimental set-up and procedures are described in Ong et al. (2003) and only a brief summary is given here. Ten pairs of strain gauges were glued at opposite faces of the model pile at vertical intervals of 25 mm to measure bending moment along the pile shaft. The final width of the square aluminium pile (inclusive of epoxy coating) is 12.6 mm (630 mm in prototype scale). The total length of the pile is 350 mm (17.5 m) with an embedment depth of 250 mm (12.5 m). The model retaining wall is simulated using a 3-mm (150-mm) thick aluminum plate. The embedment depth of the wall is 160 mm (8 m). The equivalent prototype bending rigidity, EI, of the model pile and wall are approximately 2.2 x 105 kNm2 and 24 x 103 kNm2/m, respectively.  200 340 Model container  Solenoid valve  Retaining wall Pile Zinc chloride PPTs PPT 4 PPT 1 PPT 2  Laser sensors LVDTs 470 40 210  Clay  PPT 3  Sand  Figure 2.  Centrifuge model set-up (all dimensions in mm)  Ong, Leung and Chow    International Conference on Structural and Foundation Failures August 2-4, 2004, Singapore  Details of a test involving a failed excavation in clay are reported in this paper. In this test, much of the retaining wall is embedded in the soft clay layer, without any toe embedment into the underlying sand. The maximum excavation depth is 1.8 m. The single pile is located 3 m behind the wall. The physical properties of the Malaysian kaolin clay are given in Table 1. In-flight bar penetrometer tests were performed to quantify the undrained shear strength (cu) profile of the clay before the test. The shear strength profile shown in Figure 3 reveals that a 2.5-m thick overconsolidated crust exists above the normally consolidated clay. Table 1. Physical properties of kaolin clay  2.6 80 % 40 % 0.65 0.14 1.67 1.3x10-8 m/s  Specific gravity, Gs Liquid limit, LL Plastic limit, PL Compression index, Cc Swelling index, Cs Void ratio at 115 kPa at NC line Permeability at 115 kPa at NC line  0 2 Depth (m) 4 6 8 10  0  Undrained shear strength (kPa) 4 8 12 16  20  Figure 3.  Undrained shear strength profile of clay  After the clay has been prepared and consolidated in-flight, the centrifuge was stopped to facilitate the replacement of soil by zinc chloride (ZnCl2). The density (16.5 kN/m3) and height of the ZnCl2, which was placed in a container bag in front of the wall, were made identical to those of the excavated clay. Soil movement markers were placed on the clay at 20 mm square grids to measure the free field soil movements. Linear variable displacement transducers (LVDT) were installed to measure the ground settlements behind the excavation. The pile head deflection was monitored by two non-contact laser displacement transducers. A high resolution image processing camera was mounted in  Ong, Leung and Chow    International Conference on Structural and Foundation Failures August 2-4, 2004, Singapore  front of the perspex window of the model container to capture the movements of soil markers at various stages of excavation. The release of ZnCl2 solution at 50g depicts the in-flight excavation process. At prototype scale, the simulated excavation rate is about 0.56 m per day. The ground water level, which was slightly higher than the ground surface, was monitored by placing 2 pore pressure transducers (not shown in Figure 2 for clarity) on the ground surface so that corrections of ground water level could be made when analyzing the experimental data. Experiment results Figure 4 shows the wall deflection profiles during and after excavation. The tilted wall causes the clay behind the wall to settle and the ground settlement continues to increase over time after the completion of excavation, as shown in Figure 5. The long term time dependent wall deflection and settlement troughs have been further investigated in detail by Ong et al. (2003).  0  2 Dep th (m)  Symbol Excavation depth (m)  4  0.6 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.8  6  Time after excavation (days)  50 200 300  8  0  0 .4 0.8 1.2 Lateral wall movement (m)  1.6  Figure 4.  Wall deflection profiles during and after excavation  Figure 6 shows that the maximum induced pile bending moment is located at 8.75 m below the ground level. The induced bending moment initially increases with increase in excavation depth. A maximum value of 236 kNm is recorded at an excavation depth of 1.2 m. The bending moment then decreases with increase in excavation depth. At the maximum excavation depth of 1.8 m, the bending moment reduces to 185.8 kNm. Thereafter, the bending moment profile is found to decrease further over time.  Ong, Leung and Chow    International Conference on Structural and Foundation Failures August 2-4, 2004, Singapore  0  Excavation depth (m)  Symbol  Settlement (m)  0.6  0.3  0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8  0.6  Time after excavation (days)  50 200 300  0.9  0  Distance from wall (m)  4  8  12  16  Figure 5.  Ground settlement profiles during and after excavation  Bending moment (kNm) 100 150 200  0 2.5 Depth (m) 5 7.5 10 12.5  0  50  Symbol  250  Excavation depth (m) Days after completion of excavation  1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 0 0 0 0 0 22 240  Figure 6.  Development of pile bending moment profile over time  High-resolution pictures were taken during various excavation stages of the test, as shown in the left-hand side photographs of Figure 7. It is evident that tension cracks have developed when the excavation depth exceeds 1.0 m. These cracks cause the loss of contact of clay in front of the pile and this may have prevented the transmission of additional soil pressures onto the pile. The vectors of soil movement shown in the righthand side plots of Figure 7 indicate that the size of considerable soil movement zone  Ong, Leung and Chow    International Conference on Structural and Foundation Failures August 2-4, 2004, Singapore  increases as excavation progresses, but the shape does not alter. This observation is consistent with that observed by Bolton and Powrie (1987).  -1  Soil movement (mm) 1000  Depth (m)  -3  75 65 55 45 35  -5  Excavation 0.6 m, 1.0 days -7  25 15 5  -1  300 250  Depth (m)  -3  200 150 100 50  -5  Excavation 1.0 m, 1.7 days  -7  -1  -5  Excavation 1.4 m, 2.4 days  -7  -1  Depth (m)  -3  500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50  750 650  Depth (m)  -3  550 450 350 250 150 50  -5  Excavation 1.8 m, 3.0 days  -7 1 3 5 7  Distance (m)  Figure 7. Pictures and vectors showing development of tension cracks and corresponding soil movements, respectively (after Leung et al., 2003)  Ong, Leung and Chow    International Conference on Structural and Foundation Failures August 2-4, 2004, Singapore  The variations of pile head deflection and free field soil movement at different depths at the pile location with time are shown in Figure 8. The free field soil movement is measured by using a commercial image processing software to track the movement of beads placed on the side surface of the clay. It is observed that the soil starts to move ahead or  flow  past the pile at a relatively shallow excavation depth of 0.6 m, after which the difference between the soil and pile movements becomes more significant with increasing excavation depth. The movement is expected to be reasonably large during excavation due to the low undrained shear strength profile of the clay as shown in Figure 3. As expected, greater soil movement is observed to occur nearer to the ground surface.  250  Soil movement at depth below ground level (m) 0.4 1.4 2.4 3.4 4.4 5.4  Lateral movement (mm)  200 150 100 50 0 0  Pile head  0 .3  Excavation depth (m)  0.6  0. 9  1.2  1 .5  1.8  Figure 8.  Variations of pile head deflection and soil movement  In order to verify this finding, the soil pressure profiles are obtained by differentiating the measured pile bending moment profiles twice using a 7th order polynomial. Figure 9 shows the development of the maximum soil pressure values deduced from the corresponding bending moment profiles shown in Figure 6. It is evident that the limiting maximum soil pressure values have been reached at an excavation depth of 1.2 m. Thereafter, the soil pressures do not increase further with increasing excavation depth. This observation further reinforces the postulation that when the soil flows past the pile and also with the presence of the tension cracks in front of the pile as described earlier, the soil could not transmit its full pressure onto the pile, thus a drop in pile bending moment is noted as shown in Figure 6.  Ong, Leung and Chow    International Conference on Structural and Foundation Failures August 2-4, 2004, Singapore  20  Maximum back-analysed soil pressure (kPa)  16  12  8  4  0 0 0 .4 0.8 1 .2 1.6 Excavation depth (m) 2  Figure 9.  Variation of maximum back-analysed soil pressure with excavation depth  Studies in sand Leung et al. (2000) examined the pile behaviour behind a failed excavation in sand. The test set-up is essentially similar to that shown in Figure 2, except that the clay is replaced by sand. In Test WC1, the pile is located 2 m behind the wall. As sand is much stiffer than clay, a maximum excavation depth of 6.0 m was necessary to induce the failure of the retaining wall at an intermediate excavation depth.  1000  (a) Test WC1 Deflection  100.0  100  (b) Test PC2 Deflection Rotation  10.0  10  1.0  1 1 2 3 4 5 6 78 Excavation Depth (m)  0.1  Figure 10.  Wall deflection and rotation versus excavation depth (after Leung et al., 2000)  Ong, Leung and Chow  Wall Head Rotation (degree)  Rotation  Wall Head Deflection (mm)    International Conference on Structural and Foundation Failures August 2-4, 2004, Singapore  The pile would be located within the active pressure rupture zone behind the wall when the excavation failed. The variations of wall deflection and rotation with excavation depth are shown in a log-log scale in Figure 10. It is evident that an approximate bi-linear relationship exists. The interception of the two straight lines denotes the occurrence of wall failure. As such, the excavation had failed at an excavation depth of approximately 5.0 m. Figure 11 shows the induced pile bending moment profiles of Test WC1 The location of the maximum pile bending moment is noted to be about 7.5 m below the ground surface. The induced shear force, soil pressure and deflection profiles derived from the measured pile bending moment profiles are shown in Figures 12(a), (b) and (c), respectively.  0.0  excavation depth 1m  Depth below ground surface (m)  2.5  2m 3m 4m  5.0  5m 6m  7.5  10.0  12.5 0 50 10 0 150 200 250  Bending moment (kN-m)  Figure 11.  Induced pile bending moment profiles (after Leung et al., 2000)  It is observed that after the collapse of the wall at excavation depth of 5 m, the induced pile bending moment, shear force, soil pressure and deflection do not increase further. Video pictures reveal that at this stage, the sand flows past the pile resulting in no further increase in loading on the pile.  Ong, Leung and Chow    International Conference on Structural and Foundation Failures August 2-4, 2004, Singapore  Depth below ground surface (m)  0.0  2.5  5.0  7.5  10.0  12.5 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25  (a) Shear force (kN)  Legend Excavation depth: Line type : 1m  (b) Soil pressure (kPa)  2m 3m 4m  (c) Deflection (mm)  5m 6m  Figure 12.  Induced pile (a) shear force, (b) soil pressure and (c) deflection profiles (after Leung et al., 2000)  Conclusions The results of the field study revealed that excessive soil movements due to excavation could severely damaged the adjacent piles. It is thus necessary to evaluate the effects of excavation-induced soil movements on adjacent piles in detail, in particular for those behind failed excavations. As it would be too time consuming and costly to carry out full scale tests, centrifuge modelling technique is employed to perform the task. The results of the centrifuge model study revealed that the wall movement due to excavation would cause soil movements behind the wall and this would induce deflection and bending moment on adjacent piles. For clay, the pile responses are noted to be time dependent, i.e. the pile bending moment and deflection continue to change after completion of excavation. For a failed excavation, the development of tension cracks at the ground surface may have prevented the full transmission of soil pressure on the piles and hence the induced pile bending moment and deflection decrease after failure. For piles in sand, the sand is noted to  flow  past the pile and no further increase in pile bending moment and deflection is noted after failure.  Acknowledgements The Authors wish to acknowledge the help rendered by the laboratory personnel in the Geotechnical Centrifuge Laboratory of the National university of Singapore for their able and kind assistance in conducting the centrifuge tests for the present study.  Ong, Leung and Chow    International Conference on Structural and Foundation Failures August 2-4, 2004, Singapore References Bolton, M. D. and Powrie, W., (1987).  The collapse of diaphragm wall retaining clay . Geotechnique Vol. 37, No. 3: 335-353. Leung, C. F., Chow, Y. K., and Shen, R. F. (2000).  Behavior of pile subject to excavation-induced soil movement,  J. of Geotech. and Geoenviron. Eng., 126(11), pp. 947-954. Leung, C.F., Ong, D.E.L. and Chow, Y.K. (2003).  Study of Geotechnical Failures through Physical Modeling,  Proc. Indonesian National Geotechnical Conference, Keynote Lecture, Jakarta, pp. 1-10. Ong, D. E. L., Leung, C. F. and Chow, Y. K. (2003).  Time-dependent pile behaviour due to excavationinduced soil movement in clay,  Proc. 12th Pan-American Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, U.S.A, Vol. 2, pp. 2035-2040. Poulos, H.G., (1997).  Failure of a building supported on piles.  Proc. of the International Conference on Foundation Failures, Singapore, pp53-66. Taylor, R. N. (1995).  Centrifuge in modeling: principles and scale effect,  Geotechnical Centrifuge Technology, edited by R. N. Taylor, Blackie Academic and Professional, London, pp. 19-33.  Ong, Leung and Chow    ",357);arrFiles[84]=new Array(86,"http://www.juruterajasa.com/resources/Keynote Jakarta Final.pdf","2004-06-26","Microsoft Word - Keynote Jakarta Final.doc","","","Study of Geotechnical Failures through Physical Modeling  C. F. Leung, D. E. L. Ong & Y. K. Chow  Centre for Soft Ground Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117576  ABSTRACT: The use and benefits of physical modeling in the study of geotechnical failures is demonstrated in this paper. Centrifuge model studies on the performance of piles behind an unstable retaining wall in clay as well  as the responses of piles due to tunnel collapse in sand are used as illustrative cases. An enhanced image processing system is employed to visualize the soil movement patterns and trends during the failure of the wall or the tunnel. The observations together with the measured bending moment and deflection profiles along the pile and ground settlements provide valuable information on the failure mechanism of the problems understudy without the occurrence of actual failures in the field. Prediction of pile responses using a numerical method developed at the National University of Singapore is also presented in this paper to evaluate the reliability of the centrifuge test observations and results.  Keywords: Soil flow, failure, tension cracks, soil movement, limiting soil pressure, image processing 1 INTRODUCTION Geotechnical failures often occur when sub-standard construction procedures have been adopted. High variability and insufficient or inaccurate soil investigation results regarding subsurface soil layers and properties can also lead to erroneous designs. Many geotechnical failures have been reported. For instance, Ting et al. (1994) reported the failure of piles supporting an embankment due to landslip, Poulos (1994) reported the piled foundation failure of an office tower due to a nearby excavation, and the failure of a pile-supported wharf structure due to riverbank movement has been described by Ting and Tan (1997). When failures occur, lives, money and confidence are lost. Painful lessons can be learnt from each failure so that such failures can be avoided in the future. Nevertheless, it is also important to understand the behaviour of the structures during and after failure so as to widen the knowledge beyond the serviceability limits of structures. Reallife structures are not normally built and then tested to failure as tremendous amount of money and time is involved. Therefore, full-scale testing of a structure to failure is generally deemed to be uneconomical and undesirable. As such, physical modeling is considered an attractive alternative to study geotechnical failures. Leung et al. (2000) reported the results of a centrifuge model study on the behaviour of piles behind a collapsed retaining wall in sand. In this paper, the responses of piles behind an unstable retaining wall in clay and adjacent to a tunnel that subsequently collapses upon excavation are used as illustrative examples to demonstrate the benefits of physical modeling in the study of geotechnical failures. Centrifuge model tests can be carried out under a controlled environment where the soil strength profiles, soil deformation and elapsed time can be measured with reasonable accuracy resulting in reliable test results. Besides that, the consistent repeatability of centrifuge experiments also renders centrifuge model study attractive and relatively economical. 2 EXPERIMENT SET-UP 2.1 Model pile and retaining wall The first study involves the investigation of pile responses behind a retaining wall that collapses upon reaching certain excavation depth. Figure 1 shows the centrifuge model setup. All the experiments were conducted at 50g on the National University of Singapore geotechnical centrifuge. The model pile was fabricated from a hollow square aluminium tube with an outer diameter of 9.53 mm and a wall thickness of 3.18 mm. Ten pairs of strain gauges were attached to the opposing faces of the model pile at vertical intervals of 25 mm. The    final width of the pile is 12.6 mm. At 50g, the equivalent pile width is 630 mm in prototype scale. The total length of the pile is 350 mm (17.5 m in prototype scale). The pile has an embedment depth of 250 mm (12.5 m) into the clay. A thin layer of epoxy was applied to the entire pile length to ensure that the strain gauges and all connections were waterproof and well protected. The stiffness of the epoxy coating is assumed to be negligible when compared to that of the aluminium model pile. The prototype bending rigidity, EI, of the model pile is approximately 2.2 x 105 kNm2. This is somewhat equivalent to a 12.7 mm thick, 610-mm diameter steel pipe pile in the field. The model retaining wall is fabricated using a 3 mm (150 mm in prototype dimension) thick aluminum plate. Its prototype bending rigidity, EI, is 24 x 103 kNm2/m, which is equivalent to that of a FSP II A sheet pile.  Table 2. Physical properties of sand (after Ong et al., 2003a) Mean grain size Uniformity coefficient Specific gravity, Gs Friction angle (50-100 kPa) 0.16 mm 1.3 2.65 43o  2.3 Test preparation and procedure Kaolin powder was mixed with water at a water content of 120% in a de-airing mixer. The slurry was then placed in the model container under water. Subsequently, a 17-kg plate was placed on top of the slurry to stiffen it. Then, the sample was placed on a loading frame for 1-D consolidation under a load of 20 kPa for 3 days. After that, self-weight consolidation of clay was carried out under 50g for about 6 to 7 hours. The ground surface settlements were monitored by displacement transducers (LDVT). After about 90% consolidation had been reached, the centrifuge was spun down. Pore pressure transducers (PPT) were then embedded at positions shown in Figure 1. Subsequently, the model wall and pile were jacked vertically into place using a guide at 1g. Excavation was then carried out. The excavated clay was replaced by ZnCl2 solution contained in a latex bag. The density (16.5 kN/m3) and height of the ZnCl2 solution were made to be identical to those of the clay that had been excavated. After that, the front perspex face of the container was removed so that soil movement markers could be placed on the clay at 20 mm square grids. LVDTs were installed to measure the ground settlements behind the excavation. The pile head deflection, during and after excavation was monitored by two non-contact laser displacement transducers. A highresolution image-processing camera was mounted in front of the perspex window of the model container. The camera is capable of recording a high-resolution image with a pixel-to-pixel spacing of less than 0.1 mm. Finally, the model package was put together and spun up to 50g for reconsolidation. When both pore water pressures and ground settlements behind the wall showed negligible changes, the ZnCl2 solution was then released to depict excavation at 50g. In prototype scale, the simulated excavation rate was about 0.56 m per day, which is equivalent to normal real-life average rate of excavation. The stress history of the clay sample was intended to simulate that of a normally consolidated clay deposit with a 2.8-m overconsolidated crust. The detail test procedures are described in Ong et al. (2003a). Two tests depicting the collapse of retaining wall were conducted in the present study. The configurations of the tests are shown in Table 3.  Figure 1. Centrifuge model set-up (all dimensions in mm) (after Ong et al., 2003a)  2.2 Soil properties The properties of the clay and sand used are shown in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. The undrained soil strength profiles measured by inflight bar penetrometer tests are given in Ong et al. (2003b).  Table 1. Physical properties of kaolin clay (after Ong et al., 2003a) Specific gravity, Gs Liquid limit, LL Plastic limit, PL Compression index, Cc Swelling index, Cs Void ratio at 115 kPa at NC line Permeability at 115 kPa at NC line 2.6 80 % 40 % 0.65 0.14 1.67 1.3x10-8 m/s    Table 3. Configuration of Tests 1 and 2 Item Distance of pile from wall Excavation depth Clay thickness Sand thickness Wall toe embedment in sand Test 1 3m 1.8 m 10.5 m 2.0 m 0 m; Floating in clay Test 2 3m 2.8 m 6.5 m 6.0 m 1.5 m  also located at 8.75 m below the ground at an excavation depth of 1.2 m. Subsequently, this value drops slightly with increasing excavation depth but somehow increases again after the excavation depth exceeds 2.0 m, as shown in Figure 3. A maximum pile bending moment of 250.7 kNm is recorded at the end of excavation of 2.8 m.  Bending moment (kNm)  0 0  S y m bo l  100  200  300  3 TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The pile behaviour in Tests 1 and 2 are discussed with particular reference to the measured soil deformation patterns and the pore water pressure responses. 3.1 Pile response The bending moment profiles along the pile at different excavation depths for Test 1 are shown in Figure 2. The maximum pile bending moment is located at 8.75 m below the ground level. A maximum value of 235.7 kNm is recorded at an excavation depth of 1.2 m. As excavation continues to its final depth of 1.8 m, the bending moment is noted to reduce to 185.8 kNm.  2.5  Excavation depth (m)  0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8  D epth (m)  5 7.5 10 12.5  Figure 3. Development of pile bending moment profile over time (Test 2)  Bending moment (kNm)  0 2.5 0 50  Symbol  100  150  2 00  250  3.2 Wall and soil deformation  3  Wall head lateral movement (m)  Excavation depth (m)  1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8  2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0  Test 1 Test 2  Settlement Settlement Wall head 1.5 m 4.5 m movement behind wall behind wall  Depth (m)  5 7.5 10 12.5  Ground settlement (m)  0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 0.1 1 10 100 1000  Figure 2. Development of pile bending moment profile over time (Test 1)  Figure 3 shows the development of bending moment profiles along the pile for Test 2 in which greater excavation depth was involved. During the early excavation stages, the measured pile bending moments show a similar trend as that in Test 1. The maximum pile bending moment is about 186.7 kNm  Time from start of excavation (days)  Figure 4. Soil and wall deformation over time    -1  Soil movement (mm) 1000  Depth (m)  -3  75 65 55 45 35  -5  Excavation 0.6 m, -7 1.0 days  -1  25 15 5  300  Depth (m)  -3  250 200 150 100 50  -5  Excavation 1.0 m, -7 1.7 days  -1  -5  Excavation 1.4 m, -7 2.4 days  -1  Depth (m)  -3  500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50  750 650  Depth (m)  -3  550 450 350 250 150 50  -5  Excavation 1.8 m, 3.0 days -7  1 3 5 7 Distance (m)  Figure 5. Selected soil movement vectorial plots for Test 1  Figure 4 shows the wall head movements and ground settlements over time for both tests. As expected, the wall and ground deformations in Test 2 are larger than those in Test 1. Both the ground settlement and wall deflection follow a similar pattern over time. For both Tests 1 and 2, when excavation depth exceeds 0.6 m, the image processor shows that the clay surface starts to move past the pile head. When the excavation depth exceeds about 0.8 m, it is observed from the image processor that some  fissures develop at the ground surface in Tests 1 and 2. Water can hence flow freely into the increasing number of fissures as excavation progresses. The development of these fissures further reduces the stability of the wall, thus causing the wall to tilt and the clay to be sheared progressively over time. Therefore, the overall clay stiffness is reduced. The observed slip lines, which shows the extent of the deformed zone around the pile, is similar to the characteristics meshes postulated by Randolph et al. (1984) for a plastically deforming cohesive soil.    High-resolution pictures were taken during various excavation stages of the tests, as shown in the left-hand side photos of Figure 5. It is evident that tension cracks have developed when the excavation depth exceeds 1.0 m. These cracks cause the loss of contact of clay in front of the pile. This in turn prevents the full transmission of soil pressure onto the pile. It is also probable that the soil would flow past the pile and not to have exerted full pressure on the pile. Figure 6 shows the top plan view of the deformed soil around the pile after excavation. It is again evident that there is a considerable drop in soil-pile contact and this might help to explain the reduction in pile bending moments after the development of tension cracks. Nevertheless, the pile head deflection remains fairly constant (see Figure 7) as the pile is continuously being pushed by the separated soil mass behind the pile. However, such pile behaviour is only noted prior to the occurrence of a fully developed active shear failure wedge as in Test 1.  plotted in terms of soil displacement vectors and shown in Figure 8. It clearly shows that the sudden changes in the length of vectors reflect the development and occurrence of the active shear failure wedge.  250 250 200 150  Deflection  B e n d in g moment (kNm)  200 150 100 50 0 0  100 50 0  Excavation depth (m)  0.4  0.8  1.2  1.6  2  Deformed zone Large tension crack  Figure 7. deflection  Development of pile bending moment and  Soil flow direction  The development of the active shear failure wedge in front of the pile causes the pile bending moment to drop, similar to that observed in Test 1. However, the mass of soil behind the pile starts to move forward in response to the increasing excavation depth, thus causing the pile bending moment to increase again. This occurs when the excavation depth exceeds 2.0 m as shown in Figure 3. 3.3 Pore water pressure The variations of excess pore water pressure with time for Tests 1 and 2 are shown in Figures 9 and 10, respectively. All PPTs register excess pore water pressures immediately after excavation. Nevertheless, PPT 1 of Test 1 registers `positive \' excess pore water pressures shortly after the completion of excavation. This is due to the water level after excavation being higher than its hydrostatic level caused by ground surface settlements. Besides that, the flooded tension crack also caused the free water and air to enter PPT 1. Owing to relatively greater soil deformations near the wall, PPT 2 registers a greater dissipation of excess negative pore water pressures as opposed to PPT 3, which is located further away from the wall. The difference in excess pore water pressures creates a hydraulic gradient that leads to pore water pressure redistribution and hence, the reconsolidation of the clay over time. This is somewhat analogous to that observed by Stewart (1992).  Deformed zone  Figure 6. Soil flow and tension cracks around the pile  Therefore, Test 2 can be used to assess the pile behaviour during and after the occurrence of a fully developed active shear failure since the excavation depth is large enough for the shear failure wedge to develop. When excavation exceeds 1.8 m, the photos show that a shear band appears gradually. As excavation progresses further, an active shear failure wedge has initiated, starting from the location of the tension cracks and gradually moves down until it intersects the wall toe. As the wall is not braced, it is observed to have rotated around the pivot, which is located at the clay-sand interface. These observations are consistent to the findings of Bolton and Powrie (1987) and Wei (1997). The soil movement immediately after excavation and the development of the active shear failure wedge are  D e fle c tion (mm)  Bending moment    -4  -4  -6  -5  -3  -1  1  3  5  Soil movement (mm) 1800  7  -6  Distance (m)  Figure 8  Development of active shear failure wedge during wall collapse (Test 2)  Excess pore water pressure (kPa)  5 0  PPT 1  PPT 2  Test 1 because the wall in Test 1 is embedded entirely in clay, whose permeability is much lower and hence, the dissipation of excess negative pore water pressure is not as easy and obvious as compared to Test 2, where the wall is embedded into the sand layer so that seepage can occur easier.  Excess pore water pressure (kPa)  -5 -10 -15 -20 -25  PPT 3  0 PPT 1 -10 PPT 3 PPT 2 -20 PPT 4 -30  PPT 4  0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 Time after start of excavation (days)  Figure 9. (Test 1) Excess pore water pressure variation over time  After excavation, the ground water level at the excavated side will drop. This creates a water pressure head difference between the retained and excavated sides. PPT 4 in Test 2 shows a rebound or dissipation of excess negative pore water pressure over time. However, a rebound is not observed in  -40  Time after start of excavation (days)  Figure 10. (Test 2) Excess pore water pressure variation over time  0  50  100  150  200  Depth (m)  -2  250  300    0 2.5  Uncorrected py = 9cu  (a) (b)  Depth (m)  5 7.5 10 12.5 0 2.5  Excavation depth (m) 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 Measured Predicted  Depth (m)  5 7.5 10 12.5 0 10 0 200  Corrected py = 3cu  (c)  30 0 400 500 -20  ( d)  Bending moment (kNm)  Figure 11.  0  20  40  60  8 0 1 00 12 0  Deflection (mm)  Measured and predicted bending moment and deflection of pile for Test 1 (after Ong et al. 200b)  Since the wall in Test 1 is floating in clay without embedding into the stiffer sand layer, the reconsolidation of soil caused by pore water pressure redistribution becomes more dominant than the seepage caused by the head difference after excavation, as revealed by PPT 4 readings in Test 2 shown in Figure 10. The excess negative pore water pressures in the retained side for Tests 1 and 2 are relatively small as they may be partly cancelled out by the positive pore water pressures generated by the undrained shearing of the clay. Similar observations were also reported by Kimura et al. (1994). 4 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS The numerical method developed by Chow and Yong (1996) is used to back-analyze the responses of a single pile due to excavation-induced soil movement obtained from the centrifuge tests. This numerical method has been used successfully by Leung et al. (2000) to back-analyze the pile  responses due to excavation-induced soil movement in sand. The concept of analysis is based on finite element method where the pile is represented by beam elements and the soil is idealized using the modulus of subgrade reaction. The non-linearity of the soil behaviour can be incorporated to an extent by limiting the soil pressure that could act on the pile. The numerical analysis requires the knowledge of the pile flexural rigidity (EI), the distribution of lateral soil stiffness (Kh) with depth, the limiting soil pressure (py) that acts on the pile and the lateral soil movements. This approach is used in the present study to predict the pile responses in Test 1. 4.1  Input soil properties  The distribution of lateral soil stiffness with depth (Kh), Young \'s modulus of the soil (Es) as well as the soil resistance or limiting pressure (py) in kaolin clay are described in detail in Ong et al. (2003b).    4.2  Prediction and discussions  When the excavation depth exceeds 1 m in Test 1, the predicted pile responses are grossly overestimated, as shown in Figures 11a and b. This is because when the clay starts to yield, the limiting soil pressure may have been reached The yielding and/or failure behaviour of the clay is evidently demonstrated by the bar penetrometer test results (Ong et al., 2003b), where the undrained shear strength (cu) of the clay reduces significantly after the soil has been excavated. By performing backanalysis of the centrifuge results, reasonable predictions of the pile responses can be obtained by adopting py = 3cu (Ong et al., 2003b). Subsequently, the corrected predicted pile responses are shown in Figures 11c and d, which reveal considerably better agreements with the measured pile responses. 5 TUNNEL-SOIL-PILE INTERACTION The second example involves the investigation of responses of piles close to a collapsed tunnel. Feng et al. (2002) presented results of centrifuge model study to investigate pile responses prior, during and after the collapse of a model tunnel. A polystyrene foam core, which is placed inside a brass foil-made model tunnel lining, is dissolved by an organic solvent during centrifuge flight to simulate the process of tunnel excavation. Strain gauges attached on the model pile shaft are used to measure the bending moment and axial load profiles along the pile during tunnel excavation.  All the centrifuge tests were conducted at 100g. In one test, the brass foil is 0.05mm thick simulating a relatively weak tunnel lining, and wrapped around the tunnel-shaped polystyrene foam core. The lining was soldered using tin solder and an electronic soldering gun. The tunnel is 210mm long (21m at prototype scale) and 60mm (6m) in diameter. Figure 12 shows the centrifuge model setup and Table 4 lists the test parameters in prototype scale.  Table 4. Test parameters (after Feng et al., 2002) Tunnel diameter Tunnel depth Ground depth Ground type Distance of pile from tunnel vertical center-line 6m 16 m 15 m Dry sand 9m  The weak model tunnel lining is not strong enough to support the soil and the tunnel completely collapses during excavation. This test condition represents the worst situation in practice. The first pile, which is used to measure the bending moment profile, was positioned 90mm (9m in prototype scale) from the tunnel vertical centerline. The pile has free head and tip conditions as well as a bending capacity of about 3000 kNm. Figure 13 shows the maximum induced bending moment profile of the pile due to the tunneling process. The maximum bending moment is 1345 kNm located approximately at the depth of horizontal tunnel center. As expected, the bending moment at pile head and pile tip is zero.  Model container  0 0  LVDT  Bending moment (kNm)  500 1000 1500  5 10 15 20 25  strain gauge  sand tunnel  Depth (m)  pile  Figure 12. al., 2002)  Centrifuge model set up for tunnel (after Feng et  Figure 13. al., 2002)  Bending moment along pile shaft (after Feng et    The second pile used to measure the axial load profile was positioned on the opposite side of the tunnel having the same distance from the tunnel vertical centerline as the first pile. However, this is a floating pile with its tip at 20 mm above the container base, and its axial load capacity is about 2500 kN. Figure 14 shows the induced axial load increased downwards from the pile head, and reached a maximum value of 1232 kN at approximately the depth of tunnel center, and then reduced towards the pile tip. The soil movements were tracked by the movement of the beads placed on the sand before the test. It is noted that the soil above the tunnel had moved downwards, while the soil below the tunnel had moved upwards during the tunneling process as shown in Figure 15.  Axial load (kN)  Figure 15. Soil movement due to tunneling  0 0 5  500  1000  1500  6 CONCLUSION In this paper, the benefits of physical modeling in the study of geotechnical failures are demonstrated by means of examples using studies on pile responses behind an unstable retaining wall and adjacent to a tunnel that collapses upon excavation. Excavation of soil causes lateral stress relief due to the removal of overburden pressure. Therefore, the strength and stiffness of the clay are reduced after an excavation. Such reduction in soil strength may have contributed to the soil flow phenomenon and the development of tension cracks, which subsequently affect the behaviour of piles embedded in soil undergoing large deformation. The deformation of clay can be correctly modeled by the numerical analysis if appropriate limiting soil pressure values are used. This can be achieved by performing inflight bar penetrometer tests to obtain the clay undrained shear strength profile before and after excavation. Tunnel-soil-pile interaction has also been studied. Owing to the collapse of tunnel lining, it is observed that about half of the ultimate bending and axial load capacities of the pile have been induced on an adjacent pile from the present centrifuge model study. This would reduce the capability of the installed piles to sustain the serviceability loads of the structures. Ground subsidence due to the collapse of tunnel lining also poses a great threat to existing adjacent buildings, especially those founded on pad footings, where differential settlement will cause structural distress. The two studies demonstrate that centrifuge modeling can be a versatile tool to study geotechnical failures as reliable results can be produced with reasonable accuracy. The  Depth (m)  10 15 20 25  Figure 14. al., 2002)  Axial load of pile due to tunneling (after Feng et  This helps to explain why the axial load transfer of the pile below the tunnel elevation is positive. Compared with the soil movements above the tunnel, the soil movements below the tunnel were generally much smaller. The ground surface settlements due to tunneling were measured with an array of LVDTs. The observed ground surface settlement trough is noted to resemble the classical Gaussian-shape settlement trough. From this study, it can be observed that the maximum bending moment and axial load of the pile occurred at approximately the depth of the tunnel horizontal centre-line. However, the axial load gradually reduced below the tunnel centre-line. The induced pile bending moment and axial load were approximately 55% and 50% of the bending and axial capacities of the piles, respectively.    observations and results facilitate a much better understanding of the behaviour of piles due to failure of adjacent geotechnical structures. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to acknowledge the contributions of Mr S-H Feng on the study of tunnel-soil-pile interaction study. The assistance of Geotechnical Centrifuge Laboratory professional and technical staff is also gratefully appreciated. REFERENCES  Bolton, M. D. and Powrie, W., The Collapse of Diaphragm Walls Retaining Clay, Geotechnique, Vol. 37, No. 3, pp. 335-353, 1987. Chow, Y. K. and Yong, K. Y., Analysis of Piles subject to Lateral Soil Movements. Journal of The Institution of Engineers, Singapore, Vol. 36, No. 2, pp. 43-49, 1996. Feng, S. H., Leung, C. F., Chow, Y. K. and Dasari, R., Centrifuge Modelling of Pile Responses due to Tunneling, 15th KKCNN Symposium on Civil Engineering, Singapore, 2002. Kimura, T., Takemura, J., Hiro-oka, A., Okamura, M. and Park J., Excavation in Soft Clay Using an In-flight Excavator, Centrifuge 94, Leung, Lee and Tan (eds), pp. 649-654, 1994. Leung, C. F., Chow, Y. K. and Shen, R. F., Behaviour of Pile subject to Excavation-induced Soil Movement, Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 126, No. 11, pp 947-954, 2000. Ong, D. E. L., Leung, C. F. and Chow, Y. K., Time-dependent Pile Behaviour due to Excavation-induced Soil Movement in Clay, Proc. 12th Pan-American Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, MIT, Boston, U.S.A, Vol. 2, pp. 2035-2040, 2003a. Ong, D. E. L., Leung, C. F. and Chow, Y. K., Piles subject to Excavation-induced Soil Movement in Clay, In publication, XIIIth European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Prague, Czech Republic, 2003b. Poulos, H. G., Design of Piles subjected to Lateral Soil Movements. 5th Indonesian National Geotechnical Conference. Randolph, M. F. and Houlsby, G. T., The Limiting Pressure on a Circular Pile Loaded Laterally in Cohesive Soil, Geotechnique Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 613-623, 1984. Ting, W. H., Chan, S. F. and Ooi, T.A., Design Methodology and Experiences with Pile Supported Embankments, Symposium on Development in Geotechnical Engineering, AIT, Thailand, 1994. Ting, W. H., Tan, Y. K., The Movement of a Wharf Structure subject to Fluctuation of Water Level, Proc. of XIVth Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Hamburg, 1997. Wei, J., Centrifuge Modelling of Deep Excavations., M.Eng Thesis, National University of Singapore, 1997.    ",413);arrFiles[85]=new Array(87,"http://www.juruterajasa.com/resources/KKCNN.pdf","2004-11-18","Title","","","The Seventeenth KKCNN Symposium on Civil Engineering December 13-15, 2004, Thailand  Centrifuge modelling of pile performance behind a failed excavation in clay Chun-Fai Leung1, Dominic E-L Ong2 and Yean-Khow Chow3  Centre for Soft Ground Engineering, National University of Singapore, 117576, Singapore  1  cvel cf@nus.e du.sg,  2  engp0942@nus.edu.sg,  3  cvechow@nus.edu.sg  ABSTRACT Centrifuge model tests were conducted to examine the performance of piles behind a failed excavation in clay. In these tests, the bending moment profile and pile head deflection were monitored during and after excavation. The test results revealed the behavior of pile in clay is time dependent and the development of tension cracks in the active shear failure wedge prevent the full transmission of soil pressure on the piles and hence the induced pile bending moment and deflection decrease after the failure of the retaining wall.  INTRODUCTION Owing to unforeseen soil conditions and other factors, failure of retaining wall may occur and the massive lateral soil movements may have detrimental effects on adjacent pile foundations supporting nearby buildings. As an example, Ong et al. (2004) reported a field study whereby the lateral soil movement due to excavation failure had induced excessive deflection and bending moment on adjacent piles. As a result, the bending moment capacity of the piles was exceeded and the 4-pile group had to be abandoned. At the National University of Singapore, centrifuge model tests were carried out to study the effects of excavation-induced soil movements on adjacent piles in dry sand. The preliminary results were presented in earlier KKNN Symposia (Shen et al., 1998; Lim et al., 2000) and the detail results and findings were reported in Leung et al. (2000) and (2003). It was established that the induced pile head deflection and bending moments would not increase further upon the collapse of the retaining wall. This is attributed to the phenomenon of sand flowing around the pile at the onset of wall collapse. As clay is a common subsurface material in Singapore and many parts of the world, the study has since been extended to that in clay (Ong et al., 2003a and 2003b). In one test series, the performance of piles behind a failed excavation in clay was examined. Selected results from this test series are presented in this paper.  1 2  Associate Professor Ph D candidate 3 Professor    CENTRIFUGE MODEL SETUP Fig. 1 shows the side elevation of the centrifuge model setup. Detail description of the model setup is given in Ong et al. (2003a). All the experiments were conducted at 50g on the National University of Singapore geotechnical centrifuge. The model pile was extensively instrumented such that the pile head deflection can be measured at 2 elevations by highly accurate laser displacement transducers while the pile bending moment profile can be monitored via 10 pairs of strain gauges installed along the pile shaft. The model pile was fabricated from a hollow square aluminium tube with a final width of 12.6 mm (630 mm in prototype scale at 50g). The pile has an embedment depth of 250 mm (12.5 m). The prototype bending rigidity, EI, of the model pile is approximately 2.2 x 105 kNm2, simulating a prototype 12.7 mm thick and 610-mm diameter steel pipe pile. The model retaining wall was fabricated using a 3 mm (150 mm) thick aluminum plate. Its prototype bending rigidity, EI, is 24 x 103 kNm2/m, which is equivalent to that of a FSPIIA steel sheet pile. The shear strength profile, as determined using a T-bar penetrometer (Stewart and Randolph, 1991) during centrifuge flight, consists of a top 2.5-m thick overconsolidated crust followed by normally consolidated soft clay with an average undrained strength of about 10 kPa. The in-flight excavation is simulated by draining zinc chloride solution having an identical unit weight as the clay in the latex bag placed in front of the model retaining wall. All the instruments are monitored regularly throughout and sometime after the excavation process.  200 340 Model container  Solenoid valve  Retaining wall Pile Zinc chloride PPTs PPT 4 PPT 1 PPT 2  Laser sensors LVDTs 470 40 210  Clay  PPT 3  Sand  Fig. 1. Experimental setup and instrumentation (all dimensions in mm) TEST RESULTS Test 1 The results of 2 tests are reported here. The model pile was placed 3 m (prototype scale) behind the retaining wall in both tests. In Test 1, the retaining wall is embedded entirely in the soft clay stratum, resulting in a `floating wall toe \' situation. The maximum excavation depth is 1.8 m and the wall is observed to collapse at the end of the test. Unless otherwise stated, all the test results are presented in prototype scale hereinafter. Fig. 2 shows the bending moment profiles along the pile at different excavation depths for Test 1. At the initial stages, the bending moments at all elevations increase with excavation depth, as expected. The bending moment at each elevation reach their respective maximum value when the excavation depth reaches 1.2 m. The observed maximum induced pile bending    moment of 238 kNm is located at 8.75 m below the ground level. The bending moments at all elevations subsequently reduce with increasing excavation depth. At the final excavation depth of 1.8 m, the maximum bending moment reduces to 186 kNm. Thereafter, the bending moments are noted to decrease further with time. Fig. 3 shows the ground settlement troughs during and after excavation for Test 1. As expected, the ground settlement behind the retaining wall increases with excavation depth and the settlement continues to increase over time after completion of excavation. This illustrates the behavior of the ground is time dependent, supported by the dissipation of negative excess pore pressures recorded by the miniature pore pressure transducers after excavation. Thus the performance of pile behind an excavation in clay is time dependent and its long term performance must be evaluated.  Bending moment (kNm)  0 2.5 0 50  Symbol Excavation depth (m)  100  150  2 00  250  1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8  Depth (m)  5 7.5 10 12.5  Fig. 2. Bending moment profiles of pile for Test 1  0  Symbol Excavation depth (m)  Settlement (m)  0.6  0.3  0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8  0.6  Time after excavation (days)  50 200 300  0.9  0  Distance from wall (m)  4  8  12  16  Fig. 3. Ground settlement troughs during and after excavation for Test 1 Figure 4 shows the top plan view of the model after excavation. It appears that there is a considerable reduction in the contact between the soil and the pile and this helps to explain the    reduction in pile bending moments with the development of tension cracks after certain excavation depth. The tension cracks cause the loss of contact of clay in front of the pile and prevent the full transmission of soil pressure onto the pile. It is also probable that the soil would flow past the pile and not to have exerted full pressure on the pile.  Deformed zone Large tension crack  Soil flow direction  Deformed zone  Fig. 4. Top view of model after Test 1 Test 2 In Test 2, the retaining wall is embedded through 6.5 m of soft clay and then socketed 1.5 m into an underlying dense sand layer, resulting in a relatively `fixed wall toe \' situation. The maximum excavation depth increases to 2.8 m resulting in a totally collapsed wall upon excavation. The development of bending moment profiles along the pile for Test 2 is shown in Fig. 5. The measured pile bending moment profiles for the early stages of Tests 1 and 2 are noted to be similar. At an excavation depth of 1.2 m, the maximum pile bending moment for Test 2 is 187 kNm located at 8.75 m below the ground. The bending moment at all levels subsequently decreases with increasing excavation depth but the bending moments increase again when the excavation depth exceeds 2 m. At the maximum excavation depth of 2.8 m, the maximum bending moment recorded is 251 kNm. High resolution photographs were taken throughout the 2 tests. Fig. 6 shows a high resolution photograph of the model setup at the maximum excavation depth of 2.8 m in Test 2. It clearly shows the development of active shear failure wedge with the collapse of the retaining wall. The series of photographs reveal that a shear band gradually develops when excavation exceeds 1.8 m depth. As excavation progresses further, an active shear failure wedge has initiated, starting from the location of the tension cracks and gradually moves down until it intersects the wall toe. The wall is observed to rotate around the pivot at the clay-sand interface. This is similar to that observed by Bolton and Powrie (1987). By comparing Fig. 6 with the photograph taken prior to excavation using a commercial computer software, the soil movement vectors can be obtained. The sudden changes in the length of vectors shown in Fig. 6 illustrate the development of the active shear failure wedge. It is believed that the failure wedge in front of the pile causes the pile bending moment to drop after an excavation depth of 1.2 m. As the mass of soil behind the pile starts to move forward in response to the increasing excavation depth, the pile bending moment would subsequently increase again when the excavation depth exceeds 2 m.    Bending moment (kNm)  0 2.5 0  S y m bo l Excavation depth (m)  100  200  300  0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8  D epth (m )  5 7.5 10 12.5  Fig. 5. Bending moment profiles of pile for Test 2  -4  -4  -6  -5  -3  -1  1  3  5  Soil movement (mm) 1800  7  -6  Distance (m)  Fig. 6. Observed shear failure wedge and soil movement vectors in Test 2 CONCLUSIONS Centrifuge model tests were conducted at the National University of Singapore to investigate the performance of piles behind a failed excavation in clay. It can be established from the test results that initially the maximum induced pile bending moment and deflection increase with excavation depth.  Depth (m)  -2    When the retaining wall fails, the pile bending moment and deflection do not increase further despite massive soil movement acting on the pile. This is attributed to the development of tension cracks and active shear failure wedge behind the wall which reduce the contact between the soil and the pile. As the result, the reduction in soil-pile contact prevents the full transmission of soil pressure onto the pile. Further studies are currently in progress to evaluate the magnitude of soil pressure on the pile in relation to the shear strength profile of the pile. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT  The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of technical staffs in the Geotechnical Centrifuge Laboratory of the National University of Singapore in conducting the centrifuge model tests.  REFERENCES Bolton, M. D. and Powrie, W. (1987).  The collapse of diaphragm walls retaining clay.  Geotechnique, Vol. 37, No. 3, 335-353. Leung,